Method of continuous processing of thin-film batteries and like devices

ABSTRACT

A method of making a thin-film device including a substrate-supply station that supplies a substrate. The substrate has a first layer on the substrate. Also described is a method and device for depositing a second layer onto the first layer, wherein energy supplied to the second layer aids in layer formation without substantially heating the substrate. Some embodiments include depositing a photovoltaic cell. In some embodiments, the substrate is a flexible material supplied from a roll. Some embodiments include attaching an integrated circuit to the substrate and operatively coupling the integrated circuit to charge the battery from the photovoltaic cell.

CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED INVENTIONS

[0001] This is a divisional of prior U.S. patent application Ser. No.09/816,603 entitled “Continuous Processing of Thin-Film Batteries andLike Devices,” filed Mar. 23, 2001, which is incorporated in itsentirety by reference, and which claims benefit of the following U.S.Provisional Patent Applications:

[0002] Ser. No. 60/191,774, filed Mar. 24, 2000, titled “ComprehensivePatent for the Fabrication of a High Volume, Low Cost Energy ProductsSuch as Solid State Lithium Ion Rechargeable Battery, Supercapacitorsand Fuel Cells”;

[0003] Ser. No. 60/225,134, filed Aug. 14, 2000, titled “Apparatus andMethod for Rechargeable Batteries and for Making and Using Batteries”;and

[0004] Ser. No. 60/238,673, filed Oct. 6, 2000, titled “Battery HavingUltrathin Electrolyte”; each of which is also incorporated in entiretyby reference.

[0005] This invention is also related to the following U.S. PatentApplications, each filed on Mar. 23, 2001:

[0006] Ser. No. 09/815,919 titled “Low-Temperature Fabrication ofThin-Film Energy-Storage Devices”;

[0007] Ser. No. 09/815,983 titled “Thin-Film Battery Having Ultra-ThinElectrolyte and Associated Method”;

[0008] Ser. No. 09/815,621 titled “Method for Fabricating PhotovoltaicDevices”;

[0009] Ser. No. 09/816,628 entitled “Method and Apparatus forIntegrated-Battery Devices,”

[0010] Ser. No. 09/816,602 titled “Device Enclosures and Devices withIntegrated Battery”; and

[0011] Ser. No. 09/815,884 titled “Battery-OperatedWireless-Communication Apparatus and Method”;

[0012] each of which is incorporated by reference. This is also relatedto U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/693,817 titled “IntegratedCapacitor-Like Battery and Associated Method,” filed Oct. 23, 2003.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

[0013] This invention relates to the field of thin-film manufacturing,and more specifically to a method and apparatus for continuousprocessing of thin-film batteries and like devices.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[0014] Electronics have been incorporated into many portable devicessuch as computers, mobile phones, tracking systems, scanners, etc. Onedrawback to portable devices is the need to include the power supplywith the device. Portable devices typically use batteries as powersupplies. Batteries must have sufficient capacity to power the devicefor at least the length of time the device is in use. Sufficient batterycapacity can result in a power supply that is quite heavy or largecompared to the rest of the device. Accordingly, smaller and lighterbatteries (i.e., power supplies) with sufficient energy storage aredesired. Other energy storage devices, such as supercapacitors, andenergy conversion devices, such as photovoltaic cells and fuel cells,are alternatives to batteries for use as power supplies in portableelectronics and non-portable electrical applications.

[0015] Another drawback of conventional batteries is the fact that someare fabricated from potentially toxic materials that may leak and besubject to governmental regulation. Accordingly, it is desired toprovide an electrical power source that is safe, solid-state andrechargeable over many charge/discharge life cycles.

[0016] One type of an energy-storage device is a solid-state, thin-filmbattery. Examples of thin-film batteries are described in U.S. Pat. Nos.5,314,765; 5,338,625; 5,445,126; 5,445,906; 5,512,147; 5,561,004;5,567,210; 5,569,520; 5,597,660; 5,612,152; 5,654,084; and 5,705,293,each of which is herein incorporated by reference. U.S. Pat. No.5,338,625 describes a thin-film battery, especially a thin-filmmicrobattery, and a method for making same having application as abackup or first integrated power source for electronic devices. U.S.Pat. No. 5,445,906 describes a method and system for manufacturing athin-film battery structure formed with the method that utilizes aplurality of deposition stations at which thin battery component filmsare built up in sequence upon a web-like substrate as the substrate isautomatically moved through the stations.

[0017]FIG. 1A shows a prior art thin-film battery 20 formed on substrate22. The battery includes a cathode current collector 32 and an anodecurrent collector 34 formed on the substrate 22. A cathode layer 38 isformed on the cathode current collector 32. An electrolyte layer 42 isformed on the cathode layer 38. An anode layer 44 is formed on theelectrolyte layer 42, the substrate 22 and the anode current collector34. The current collectors 32 and 34 are connected to external circuitryto provide electrical power to the same. In a discharge operation, ionsin the anode layer 44 travel through the electrolyte layer 42 and arestored in the cathode layer 38. Thereby, creating current flowing fromthe anode current collector 34 to the cathode current collector 32. In acharge operation, an external electrical charge is applied to thecurrent collectors 32 and 34. Thereby, ions in the cathode layer 38 areforced through the electrolyte layer 42 and are stored in the anodelayer 44.

[0018]FIG. 2A shows a prior art method for fabricating the thin-filmbattery 20. First, the substrate is prepared for deposition of thethin-film battery (step 215). The cathode current collector is depositedon the substrate using DC-magnetron sputtering (step 217). The cathodeis deposited on the cathode current collector by RF-magnetron sputtering(step 219). In this method, the magnetron source provides sputteredmaterial having energy of about 1 to 3 eV, which is insufficient tocrystallize the cathode material to form desirable crystal structuresthat encourage ion movement into and out of the cathode material. Thecathode must be annealed to produce a crystalline lattice structure inthe cathode, which is necessary to produce an energy-storage device thathas the required electrical performance characteristics. In someembodiments, a desired electrical characteristic of a battery is adischarge curve that has a relatively constant voltage (small delta)over a range of capacity and then the voltage decreases rapidly asremaining capacity is exhausted (large delta). Accordingly, the stack ofthe substrate, cathode current collector and the cathode are annealed ata temperature of 700 degrees Celsius (step 221 of FIG. 2A). The annealstep 221 complicates and adds cost to the fabrication of this type ofsolid-state battery. Further, the anneal step 221 precludes the use ofany material as the substrate or other part of the battery thus formedthat is unable to withstand the high anneal temperature. The anodecurrent collector is deposited on the substrate by DC-magnetronsputtering (step 223). The electrolyte layer is deposited byRF-magnetron sputtering (step 225). The anode is deposited by thermalevaporation (step 227).

[0019] Accordingly, there is a need for solid-state energy-storagedevices, e.g., thin-film batteries and capacitors, that can be rapidlyfabricated and that have acceptable electrical properties for use in avariety of electrical devices. More specifically, there is a need for afabrication method and system that does not require a high-temperatureanneal to form a solid-state energy-storage device.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0020] A system for making a thin-film device includes asubstrate-supply station that supplies a substrate having a majorsurface area. The substrate has a first layer on a first surface area ofthe substrate's major surface area. Also included is a device fordepositing a second layer onto the first layer, wherein the devicesupplies energy to the second layer to aid in layer formation withoutsubstantially heating the substrate.

[0021] A system for making a thin-film device includes asubstrate-supply station and a deposition station. The substrate-supplystation supplies a substrate having a major surface area and having afirst layer on a first surface area of the substrate's major surfacearea. The deposition station deposits a second layer onto the firstlayer. The deposition station supplies energy to the second layer to aidin layer formation without substantially heating the substrate. Thefirst and second layers are part of a battery. The system furtherincludes a deposition station that deposits a photovoltaic cell on thebattery. The system further includes a station that attaches anintegrated circuit to the substrate, and a wiring station that formsconductive paths between the integrated circuit, the battery and thephotovoltaic cell. The system further includes a motion device thatmoves the substrate. The first and second layers are deposited on thesubstrate while the substrate moves in a continuous motion. In someembodiments, the substrate is a flexible material supplied from a roll,and the first and second layers are deposited on the substrate while thesubstrate moves in a continuous motion. The first and second layers forma cathode layer of a battery including the cathode layer, an anodelayer, and an electrolyte layer located between and electricallyisolating the anode layer from the cathode layer. The anode or thecathode or both include an intercalation material. A deposition stationdeposits an electrical circuit on the battery. In other embodiments, thesubstrate is a rigid material supplied from a cassette, and the firstand second layers are deposited on the substrate while the substratemoves in a continuous motion. The may be a polymer material having amelting point below about 700 degrees Celsius. Energizing of the secondlayer includes supplying ions of at least 5 eV.

[0022] A system for making a thin-film device includes asubstrate-supply station that supplies a substrate having a majorsurface area, and a plurality of deposition stations that deposit layersonto the substrate. The deposition station supplies energy to the layerto aid in layer formation without substantially heating the substrate.The substrate-supply station supplies a continuous plastic sheet or acontinuous set of wafers. The plurality of deposition stations depositsa thin film battery or a capacitor. The plurality of deposition stationscan deposit a thin film battery and a device powered by the thin filmbattery and a device may be deposited onto the thin film battery. Theplurality of deposition stations may be used to deposit a thin filmbattery and a set of traces for electrically connecting a device to thethin film battery. A placement device may also be provided for placingcomponents onto the traces.

[0023] A method for making a thin-film device includes providing asubstrate having a major surface area and a first layer on a firstsurface on the major surface area. A second layer is deposited onto thefirst layer. Depositing of the second layer includes energizing thesecond layer without substantially heating the substrate. In oneembodiment, the first and second layers are part of a battery. Themethod further includes depositing a photovoltaic cell on the battery,attaching an integrated circuit to the substrate, and operativelycoupling the integrated circuit to charge the battery using current fromthe photovoltaic cell. In one embodiment, the first and second layersare deposited on the substrate while the substrate moves in a continuousmotion. The substrate is a flexible material supplied from a roll. Thefirst and second layers are deposited on the substrate while thesubstrate moves in a continuous motion. In another embodiment, the firstand second layers form a cathode layer of a battery. The batteryincludes the cathode layer, an anode layer, and an electrolyte layerlocated between and electrically isolating the anode layer from thecathode layer. The anode or the cathode or both include an intercalationmaterial. An electrical circuit may also be deposited on the battery. Inanother embodiment, the substrate is a rigid material supplied from acassette. The first and second layers are deposited on the substratewhile the substrate moves in a continuous motion. The substrate may be apolymer material having a melting point below about 700 degrees Celsius.Energizing the second layer includes supplying ions of at least 5 eV.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0024]FIG. 1A is a cross-sectional view of a conventional lithium-ionbattery.

[0025]FIG. 1B is a cross-sectional view of an energy-storage deviceaccording to the present invention.

[0026]FIG. 1C is a cross-sectional view of an energy-storage deviceaccording to the present invention.

[0027]FIG. 1D is a cross-sectional view of an energy-storage device anda supercapacitor according to the present invention.

[0028]FIG. 2A is a flowchart of a conventional method for manufacturingthe lithium-ion battery of FIG. 1A.

[0029]FIG. 2B is a flowchart of one embodiment of a fabrication processaccording to the teachings of the present invention.

[0030]FIG. 2C is a flowchart of one embodiment of a fabrication processaccording to the teachings of the present invention.

[0031]FIG. 2D is a flowchart of one embodiment of a fabrication processaccording to the teachings of the present invention.

[0032]FIG. 3A is a diagram of a device for fabricating a thin-filmbattery according to the teachings of the present invention.

[0033]FIG. 3B is a diagram of a device for fabricating a thin-filmbattery according to the teachings of the present invention.

[0034]FIG. 4 is a diagram of another embodiment of a device forfabricating a thin-film battery according to the teachings of thepresent invention.

[0035]FIG. 5A is a diagram of another embodiment of a device forfabricating a thin-film battery according to the teachings of thepresent invention.

[0036]FIG. 5B is a diagram of another embodiment of a device forfabricating a thin-film battery according to the teachings of thepresent invention.

[0037]FIG. 6 is a diagram of another embodiment of a device forfabricating a thin-film battery according to the teachings of thepresent invention.

[0038]FIG. 7 is a diagram of another embodiment of a device forfabricating a thin-film battery according to the teachings of thepresent invention.

[0039]FIG. 8 is a cross-sectional view of a photovoltaic cell accordingto the teachings of the present invention.

[0040]FIG. 9A is a perspective view of a thin-film energy-storage deviceaccording to the teachings of the present invention.

[0041]FIG. 9B is a view of another embodiment of a thin-filmenergy-storage device according to the teachings of the presentinvention.

[0042]FIG. 9C is a view of another embodiment of a thin-filmenergy-storage device according to the teachings of the presentinvention.

[0043]FIG. 10 shows X-ray diffraction spectra of cathode films forthin-film batteries.

[0044]FIG. 11 shows X-ray diffraction spectra of both a conventionalcathode layer and a cathode film according to the teachings of thepresent invention.

[0045]FIG. 12A shows X-ray diffraction spectra for a conventionalmagnetron sputtered cathode layer.

[0046]FIG. 12B shows X-ray diffraction spectra for a thin film for anenergy-storage device according to the present disclosure.

[0047]FIG. 13 is an exploded perspective view of an electronic devicewith a separate printed circuit board and battery.

[0048]FIG. 14A is an exploded perspective view of a portion of anenclosure for an electronic device according to one embodiment of thisinvention.

[0049]FIG. 14B is an exploded perspective view of a portion of anenclosure for an electronic device according to another embodiment ofthis invention.

[0050]FIG. 14C is an exploded perspective view of a portion of anenclosure for an electronic device according to yet another embodimentof this invention.

[0051]FIG. 15A is a plan view of a sheet including a plurality ofbattery cells.

[0052]FIG. 15B is a plan view of a diced battery cell before forming.

[0053]FIG. 15C is a perspective view of a battery cell after forming.

[0054]FIG. 15D is a perspective view of a battery cell after forming.

[0055]FIG. 15E is a perspective view of a battery cell after forming.

[0056]FIG. 15F is a plan view of a sheet including a plurality ofbattery cells.

[0057]FIG. 15G is a plan view of a plurality of diced battery cellsbefore forming.

[0058]FIG. 15H is a perspective view of a fan folded plurality of dicedbattery cells before forming.

[0059]FIG. 15I is a plan view of a sheet including a plurality ofbattery cells.

[0060]FIG. 15J is a perspective view of a sheet including a plurality ofbattery cells formed on the sheet according to this invention.

[0061]FIG. 15K is a perspective view of a sheet including two batterycells formed into a case from the sheet shown in FIG. 15J according tothis invention.

[0062]FIG. 15L is a side view of an electronic device enclosure formedfrom a sheet.

[0063]FIG. 16A is a plan view of a sheet including a plurality ofbattery cells.

[0064]FIG. 16B is a plan view of a diced battery cell before forming.

[0065]FIG. 16C is a perspective view of a fan folded diced battery cellbefore forming.

[0066]FIG. 16D shows a fan folded cord being truncated.

[0067]FIG. 16E shows a finished cord.

[0068]FIG. 17 is an exploded perspective view of a sheet including atleast one battery cell rolled around an electrical motor in accordancewith this invention.

[0069]FIG. 18A is a plan view of a diced battery cell and LED beforeforming.

[0070]FIG. 18B is a perspective view of a diced battery cell and LEDafter forming.

[0071]FIG. 18C is a plan view of a diced battery cell and LED beforeforming.

[0072]FIG. 18D is a perspective view of a diced battery cell and LEDafter forming.

[0073]FIG. 19A is a plan view of a sheet including a plurality ofbattery cells according to another embodiment of this invention.

[0074]FIG. 19B is a plan view of a plurality of diced battery cellsbefore forming.

[0075]FIG. 19C is a perspective view of a formed battery including aplurality of cells.

[0076]FIG. 20 is a cutaway side view of a sheet including a plurality ofbattery cells, which are embedded in an enclosure portion.

[0077]FIG. 21A is a flow chart for a first recycling method using theinventive battery and enclosure.

[0078]FIG. 21B is a flow chart for a first recycling method using theinventive battery and enclosure.

[0079]FIG. 22A shows a schematic circuit of an embodiment of anintegrated battery and circuit sharing a common terminal.

[0080]FIG. 22B shows a block diagram perspective view of an integrateddevice implementing the circuit of FIG. 22A having the circuit built onthe battery.

[0081]FIG. 22C shows a block diagram perspective view of an integrateddevice implementing the circuit of FIG. 22A having the battery built onthe circuit.

[0082]FIG. 22D shows a schematic circuit of an embodiment 2202 of anintegrated battery and circuit each having separate terminals.

[0083]FIG. 22E shows a block diagram perspective view of an integrateddevice implementing the circuit of FIG. 22D having the circuit built onthe battery.

[0084]FIG. 22F shows a block diagram perspective view of an integrateddevice implementing the circuit of FIG. 22D having the battery built onthe circuit.

[0085]FIG. 22G shows a block diagram perspective view of an integrateddevice implementing the circuit of FIG. 22A having the battery and thecircuit built side-by-side on a substrate.

[0086]FIG. 22H shows a block diagram perspective view of an integrateddevice implementing the circuit of FIG. 22D having the battery and thecircuit built side-by-side on a substrate.

[0087]FIG. 23 shows a perspective view of an embodiment 2300 of thepresent invention having a battery overlaid with circuitry.

[0088]FIG. 24A shows a perspective view of an embodiment 2400 of thepresent invention having a battery overlaid with an integrated device.

[0089]FIG. 24B shows a block diagram of a layer-deposition system 2460.

[0090]FIG. 24C shows a perspective view of a partially processed sheet2464.

[0091]FIG. 24D shows a block diagram of a layer-deposition system 2465.

[0092]FIG. 24E shows a perspective view of a processed sheet 2469.

[0093]FIG. 24F shows a perspective view of a diced final device 2400.

[0094]FIG. 25A shows a perspective view of an embodiment 2500 of thepresent invention having an integrated circuit overlaid with a battery.

[0095]FIG. 25B shows a plan view of IC 2540.

[0096]FIG. 25C shows an elevational view of IC 2540.

[0097]FIG. 25D shows a plan view integrated battery-IC 2501.

[0098]FIG. 25E shows an elevational view of integrated battery-IC 2501.

[0099]FIG. 25F shows a block diagram of a layer-deposition system 2560.

[0100]FIG. 25G shows a perspective view of a processed sheet 2569.

[0101]FIG. 26A shows a perspective view of an embodiment 2600 of thepresent invention having an integrated circuit overlaid on its back witha battery.

[0102]FIG. 26B shows a block diagram of a layer-deposition system 2660.

[0103]FIG. 26C shows a perspective view of a processed sheet 2669.

[0104]FIG. 26D shows a perspective view of diced final devices 2600.

[0105]FIG. 26E shows a perspective view of wired diced final device2600.

[0106]FIG. 26F shows a perspective view of a hearing aid 2690incorporating a wired diced final device 2600.

[0107]FIG. 27A shows a plan view of a starting substrate of anembodiment that will have an integrated battery and device sharing acommon terminal.

[0108]FIG. 27B shows a plan view of the substrate of FIG. 27A afterdeposition of the integrated battery and device sharing a commonterminal.

[0109]FIG. 27C shows a plan view of the substrate of FIG. 27B afterplacing and wiring a separately fabricated chip connected to theintegrated battery and device sharing a common terminal.

[0110]FIG. 27D shows a plan view of the substrate of FIG. 27C afterplacing and wiring a loop antenna.

[0111]FIG. 27E shows a plan view of the substrate of FIG. 27D after atop encapsulation layer has been deposited.

[0112]FIG. 27F shows an elevation view of the starting substrate of FIG.27A.

[0113]FIG. 27G shows an elevation view of the partially built device ofFIG. 27B.

[0114]FIG. 27H shows an elevation view of the partially built device ofFIG. 27C.

[0115]FIG. 271 shows an elevation view of the partially built device ofFIG. 27D.

[0116]FIG. 27J shows an elevation view of the device of FIG. 27E.

[0117]FIG. 27K shows a perspective view of the device of FIG. 27E at amagnetic-recharging station.

[0118]FIG. 27L shows a perspective view of the device of FIG. 27E at alight-recharging station.

[0119]FIG. 27M shows a schematic of the device of FIG. 27E at aradio-wave-recharging station.

[0120]FIG. 28A shows an elevation view of a battery 2800 having stackedcells.

[0121]FIG. 28B shows a plan view of a single battery cell afterrecycling.

[0122]FIG. 28C shows a process 2810 used for recycling.

[0123]FIG. 29A shows a block diagram of a layer-deposition system 2960.

[0124]FIG. 29B shows a perspective view of a partially processed wafer2964.

[0125]FIG. 29C shows a block diagram of a layer-deposition system 2965.

[0126]FIG. 29D shows a perspective view of a processed wafer 2969.

[0127]FIG. 29E shows a block diagram of a layer-deposition system 2965.

[0128]FIG. 29F shows a perspective view of a partially processed wafer2974.

[0129]FIG. 29G shows a block diagram of a layer-deposition system 2960.

[0130]FIG. 29H shows a perspective view of a processed wafer 2979.

[0131]FIG. 291 shows a perspective view of wired diced final device2600.

[0132]FIG. 30 is a perspective view of an implantable device accordingto this invention.

[0133]FIG. 31A is an exploded perspective view of a pacemaker accordingto this invention.

[0134]FIG. 31B is an exploded perspective view of one pacemaker as it isbeing formed.

[0135]FIG. 31C is an exploded perspective view of another pacemaker asit is being formed.

[0136]FIG. 32A is a perspective view of a first embodiment of a watch ofthe invention.

[0137]FIG. 32B is a perspective view of a second embodiment of a watch.

[0138] In the drawings, like numerals describe substantially similarcomponents throughout the several views. Signals and connections may bereferred to by the same reference number, and the meaning will be clearfrom the context of the description.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0139] In the following detailed description of the preferredembodiments, reference is made to the accompanying drawings that form apart hereof, and in which are shown, by way of illustration, specificembodiments in which the invention may be practiced. It is to beunderstood that other embodiments may be utilized and structural changesmay be made without departing from the scope of the present invention.

[0140] It is to be understood that in different embodiments of theinvention, each battery in the Figures or the description can beimplemented using one or more cells, and if a plurality of cells isimplemented, the cells can be wired in parallel or in series. Thus,where a battery or more than one cell is shown or described, otherembodiments use a single cell, and where a single cell is shown ordescribed, other embodiments use a battery or more than one cell.Further, the references to relative terms such as top, bottom, upper,lower, etc. refer to an example orientation such as used in the Figures,and not necessarily an orientation used during fabrication or use.

[0141] The terms wafer and substrate as used herein include anystructure having an exposed surface onto which a film or layer isdeposited, for example, to form an integrated circuit (IC) structure oran energy-storage device. The term substrate is understood to includesemiconductor wafers, plastic film, metal foil, and other structures onwhich an energy-storage device may be fabricated according to theteachings of the present disclosure. The term substrate is also used torefer to structures during processing that include other layers thathave been fabricated thereupon. Both wafer and substrate include dopedand undoped semiconductors, epitaxial semiconductor layers supported bya base semiconductor or insulator, as well as other semiconductorstructures well known to one skilled in the art. Substrate is also usedherein as describing any starting material that is useable with thefabrication method as described herein.

[0142] The term battery used herein refers to one example of anenergy-storage device. A battery may be formed of a single cell or aplurality of cells connected in series or in parallel. A cell is agalvanic unit that converts chemical energy, e.g., ionic energy, toelectrical energy. The cell typically includes two electrodes ofdissimilar material isolated from each other by an electrolyte throughwhich ions can move.

[0143] The term adatom as used herein refers to a particle, molecule, orion of material that has not yet been formed into a structure or film.

[0144] The term intercalation as used herein refers to a property of amaterial that allows ions to readily move in and out of the materialwithout the material changing its phase. Accordingly, a solid-stateintercalation film remains in a solid state during discharging andcharging of an energy-storage device.

[0145]FIG. 1B shows an embodiment of an energy-storage device 50according to the present invention. A substrate 55 is provided on whichis formed a contact film 57. Contact film 57 acts as a current collectorand is connected to a lead 58, which connects one pole of the energystorage device 50 to an external circuit. An electrode film 59 is formedon the contact film 57. In some embodiments, the electrode film 59substantially covers a surface of the contact film 57 to as to minimizeresistance by maximizing the area of the interface between the films. Insome embodiments, the electrode film 59 is a cathode for a thin-filmbattery. In other embodiments, electrode film 59 is an electrode of asupercapacitor. An electrolyte film 61 is formed on the electrode film59. An electrode film 63 is formed on the electrolyte film 61. Theelectrolyte film 61 isolates electrode film 59 from electrode film 63. Acontact film 65 is formed on electrode film 63. Contact film 65 acts asa current collector and is connected to a lead 67, which connects onepole of the energy storage device 50 to an external circuit. In someembodiments, the contact film 65 substantially covers a surface of theelectrode film 63 to as to minimize resistance by maximizing the area ofthe interface between these films. In some embodiments, the electrodefilm 63 is an anode for a thin-film battery. In other embodiments,electrode film 63 is an electrode of a supercapacitor.

[0146]FIG. 1C shows a cross sectional view of an embodiment of anenergy-storage device 50C. A substrate 55 is provided and, in someembodiments, includes additional layers and/or devices formed therewith.In some embodiments, the substrate 55 includes a substrate as describedherein. Contact films 57 and 59 are formed on the substrate 55 accordingto the methods described herein. In some embodiments, contact films 57and 59 are metal films deposited on the substrate according to othermethods as known in the art. Contact films 57 and 59 act as contacts forconnecting the energy-storage device 50C to other circuit elements (notshown).

[0147] An electrode first film 59 is formed on contact 57. Electrodefirst film 59 includes a metal or intercalation material in someembodiments, for example, thin-film battery embodiments in which theelectrode first film 59 functions as a cathode. In some suchembodiments, the electrode first film 59 includes lithium metal and/or alithium-intercalation material. In other embodiments, such assupercapacitors, electrode first film 59 is a metal oxide. It isdesirable to maximize the contact interface between the electrode firstfilm 59 and contact film 57. Accordingly, in some embodiments, theelectrode first film 59 substantially covers contact film 57 except fora portion reserved for connection to external circuits.

[0148] An electrolyte film 61C is formed on, or at least partially on,the electrode first film 59. The electrolyte film 61C, in someembodiments, completely encloses the electrode first film 59. Theelectrolyte film 61C is formed using the systems and methods describedherein. In one embodiment, a first material of the electrolyte film 61Cis deposited using a first source, which directs a first electrolytematerial (adatoms) to the location on the substrate or, as shown in FIG.1C, to a location on the electrode first film 59.

[0149] An electrode second film 59 is formed on electrolyte film 61C andcontact film 59. Electrolyte film 61C completely separates the electrodefirst film 59 from the electrode second film 59. The electrode secondfilm 63 includes a metal or intercalation material in some embodiments,for example, thin-film battery embodiments in which the electrode secondfilm is an anode. In other embodiments, such as supercapacitorembodiments, electrode second film 63 is a metal oxide. Electrode secondfilm 63, in some embodiments is deposited according to the methodsdescribed herein. In other embodiments, electrode second film 63 isformed according to methods known in the art.

[0150] The electrolyte film 61C as deposited includes the electrolytematerial. A first source (e.g., sources 311, 511, 511A, and 711 asdescribed herein) of the electrolyte material, in one embodiment, is aphysical vapor deposition source. In another embodiment, the firstsource is a chemical vapor deposition source. A second source providesenergized particles to the location. The energized particles impinge onthe electrolyte material and assist in forming a desired structure ofthe electrolyte film 61C. In some embodiments, the second sourceprovides energized particles simultaneously with the first sourcesupplying the electrolyte material. The use of the energized particlesconforms the electrolyte film 61C to electrode first film 59 such thatthe electrolyte film provides the necessary insulative property, namelypreventing electrons from traveling directly between the electrode firstfilm 59 and the electrode second film 63, i.e., shorting the electrodes.In some embodiments, the second source is an ion source as describedherein, e.g., sources 313, 413, or 713. The second source providesenergized ions that supply energy to the electrolyte material from thefirst source. The energy that is supplied by the ions assists inconforming the formed electrolyte film 61C to the electrode first layer59. It is believed that the use of the energized particles in the energyrange referenced herein provides the growing electrolyte material anextended period of mobility upon the previous film surface, and thisextended period of mobility allows the electrolyte material to grow in amore defect-free manner.

[0151] In some embodiments, it is desired to form the electrolyte film61C as thin as possible to lower its contribution to the internalresistance of the energy-storage device. It is also desired to maintainthe electrolyte's property of blocking the flow of electrons (whichwould result in a short of the cathode to the anode) while permittingthe flow of the ions that provide the battery function across theelectrolyte. Using the methods and systems described herein, theelectrolyte film 61C is formed to a thickness 61C′ of less than about5000 Angstroms. In some embodiments, the electrolyte film 61C has athickness 61C′ of less than about 2500 Angstroms. In some embodiments,the electrolyte film 61C has a thickness 61C′ of less than about 1000Angstroms. In some embodiments, the electrolyte film 6C has a thickness61C′ of less than about 500 Angstroms. In some embodiments, theelectrolyte film 61C has a thickness 61C′ of less than about 250Angstroms. In some embodiments, the electrolyte film 61C has a thickness61C′ of less than about 100 Angstroms. In some embodiments, theelectrolyte film 61C has a thickness 61C′ in a range of about 10Angstroms to about 200 Angstroms. In some embodiments, the electrolytefilm 61C has a thickness 61C′ in a range of about 10 Angstroms to about100 Angstroms.

[0152] In one embodiment, the electrolyte film 61C includes LiPON and isformed using the first source 311 with the second source 313 or 413. Asused herein, LiPON refers generally to lithium phosphorus oxynitridematerials. One example is Li₃PO₄N. Other examples incorporate higherratios of nitrogen in order to increase lithium ion mobility across theelectrolyte. In some embodiments, the first source 311 provides Li₃PO₄in a nitrogen atmosphere. In other embodiments, the first source 311provides Li₃PO₄ in a vacuum environment wherein the background pressureis less than 1E-3 Torr. The second source 313 or 413 provides energizedparticles from a source gas. In some embodiments, the secondary sourceis an ion source supplying energetic ions from a source gas comprisingoxygen (e.g., O₂) or nitrogen (e.g., N₂). The source gas, in otherembodiments, comprises a noble gas, e.g., argon, xenon, helium, neon,and krypton. The energized particles and/or ions increase the energy ofthe material forming the electrolyte film 61C, thus enhancinglayer-by-layer growth. Accordingly, the electrolyte film is of a higherquality than conventional electrolyte layers.

[0153] An embodiment for forming a LiPON electrolyte film 61C includesthe first source providing Li₃PO₄ at or to the location where the LiPONelectrolyte film is to be formed and second source providing energizednitrogen particles to or near the same location. The energized nitrogenparticles react with Li₃PO₄ provided at the location for forming theelectrolyte film. This increases the amount of nitrogen in the LiPONelectrolyte film. Increasing the nitrogen content is desirable toincrease lithium ion mobility across the electrolyte.

[0154] In a further embodiment, the chamber in which the substrate 55 ispositioned has a nitrogen enhanced atmosphere. A LiPON electrolyte film61C is formed by the Li₃PO₄ supplied by the first source reacting withthe nitrogen in the chamber. The second source provides energizedparticles assisting in the formation of the electrolyte film. In anotherembodiment, the second source also provides nitrogen to the Li₃PO₄ atthe location. Thus, the Li₃PO₄ reacts with both the nitrogen in thechamber and with energized, nitrogen containing particles supplied bythe second source. This increases the nitrogen content of theelectrolyte film 61C. In some embodiments, increasing the nitrogencontent in the electrolyte film 61C is desirable since published datafrom the Department of Energy lab at Oak Ridge, Tenn. indicates anincrease in nitrogen content increases the ion conductivity or mobilityin the electrolyte film.

[0155] As will be understood by reading the present invention, thesystems shown herein for depositing films are adaptable to form theelectrolyte film 61C according to the present invention. Examples ofsome such systems are shown in FIGS. 3-7.

[0156]FIG. 1D shows another embodiment of an energy storage deviceaccording to the teachings of the present invention. A supercapacitor 70is formed on the energy-storage device 50C having the ultra-thinelectrolyte film 61. The energy-storage device 50C being formed on thesubstrate prior to forming the supercapacitor 70 represents anembodiment of layer/devices being formed on the substrate prior toapplying the techniques described herein to form energy-storage and/orenergy conversion devices. The supercapacitor 70 includes anintermediate film 73 formed in physical contact with electrode films 71and 75. In some embodiments, the intermediate film 73 is an electrolytefor storing and discharging electrical charge by a faradaic process. Insome embodiments, the intermediate film 73 includes a dielectricmaterial. The contact film 65 is in physical and electrical contact withelectrode 71. Thus, in this embodiment contact film 65 is a sharedcontact film for both the energy storage device 50C and supercapacitor70. In other embodiments, energy storage device 50C and supercapacitor70 have separate contact films. In some embodiments, the intermediatefilm 73 includes LiPON. In some embodiments, the electrolyte film 73includes TaO. In some embodiments, the electrode films are RuO₂. Acontact film 77 is formed on the electrode film 75. A lead 76 extendsfrom the contact film 77 to contact one plate of the supercapacitor toan external circuit.

[0157] A method for fabricating the solid-state energy-storage device 50will now be described with reference to FIGS. 1B and 2B. The methodincludes providing a substrate 55 (step 251) and depositing a cathodecontact film 57 on the substrate 55 (step 253). In some embodiments,step 251 includes providing a substrate having insulator layers or otherlayers/devices formed thereon. The method further includes a step 255 ofdepositing an electrode material to a location on the substrate, whilesimultaneously supplying energized particles to the electrode materialat the substrate. In one embodiment, an assist source provides theenergized particles. In some such embodiments, the energized particlebeam is directed to the same location on the substrate as the electrodematerial. In an embodiment, the energized particles are energized ions.The energized ions, in an embodiment, include a material that isdifferent than the electrode material. The energized particles or theion beam assist in controlling growth of the structure of the electrodematerial at the location. In some embodiments, step 255 is used to forma cathode film or layer 59 for a solid-state, thin-film battery. Thecathode film 59 is in electrical and physical contact with the cathodecontact. An electrolyte film 61 is deposited, step 257, on the cathodefilm 59. An anode film 63 is deposited, step 259, on the electrolytefilm. The electrolyte film 61 separates the cathode and anode films 59and 61 to prevent shorting the energy-storage device 50, e.g., battery.An anode contact is formed, step 261, in electrical and physical contactwith the anode film. The thin-film battery according to the presentinvention is now formed and is subjected to post energy-storage devicefabrication steps 263.

[0158] The deposition of the cathode film includes directing a firstmaterial (e.g., adatoms) to a location on the substrate, whilesimultaneously supplying energized particles (e.g., ions) of a secondmaterial to the location on the substrate. In some embodiments, thesecond material is different from the first material. The energizedparticles supply energy to the first material to assist in the growth ofa desirable crystal structure in the cathode film. Moreover, thiscontrols the stoichiometry of the growing film at the location on thesubstrate. In one embodiment, the first material is alithium-intercalation material used as a solid-state, thin-film batterycathode. The assist source provides ions that provide energy in a rangeof 5 eV to 3000 eV to the lithium-intercalation material. Control of theenergy in the ions produced by the assist source provides in situcontrol for growing a lithium-intercalation film having a crystallinestructure. The energy from the ions assists the formation oflithium-intercalation materials into a crystalline structure at the timeof deposition. In one embodiment, the gas used to form the ions is usedto control the stoichiometry of the growing, crystalline film. Forexample, an ionized, assist beam of O₂ is used to control the growth andstoichiometry of a LiCoO₂ intercalation material. In some suchembodiments, the O₂ in the ion assist beam combines with LiCo at thelocation to form the LiCoO₂ intercalation material.

[0159] The crystalline structure of a thin film formed according to theteachings herein has a higher order than those achieved by conventionalcathode film forming techniques. Conventional techniques rely on ahigh-temperature, post-cathode-deposition anneal to reorder andcrystallize the structure of a conventional cathode film. Unfortunately,such conventional techniques anneal the entire structure to the sametemperatures, which is undesirable in that the substrate must withstandsuch temperatures which eliminates many otherwise suitable substratematerials from consideration. Further, different layers cannot beprovided with different anneals suited to their different requirements.A highly ordered crystalline cathode film is desirably achievedaccording to the teachings described herein by providing the requiredenergy to form the desired, high-order and appropriately orientedcrystal structure without subjecting the substrate, and other layersformed on the substrate including the cathode-contact film to ahigh-temperature anneal. Further, each layer can be annealed using adifferent anneal process (such as using ion assist beams havingdifferent energies for different layers, or depositing and annealing atdifferent rates or for different durations). Further, by annealing thesurface layer of the previous layer, a subsequent layer can be depositedonto a surface that has been ordered in a specific way (for example, toachieve a specific crystal orientation, or a specific ion-bondingsurface) that enhances the quality of that subsequent layer.

[0160]FIG. 2C shows one embodiment of a method for fabricating anenergy-storage device. Steps 251, 253, 259, 261, and 263 aresubstantially similar to the steps described above with reference toFIG. 2B. Step 255C is a step for depositing a cathode film at leastpartially on the cathode contact film. In an embodiment, the cathodefilm is deposited as described above in step 255. In other embodiments,the cathode film is deposited according to other deposition processesknown in the art. The electrolyte film is formed by depositing anelectrolyte material to a location at least partially in contact withthe cathode film (step 257C). In a preferred embodiment, the electrolytematerial is in contact with a substantial portion of, if not all of, asurface of the cathode film. In some embodiments, an assist sourcesimultaneously supplies energized particles to the electrolyte materialas it forms the electrolyte film. In an embodiment, the assist sourcesupplies a beam of energized ions of an assist material different thanthe electrolyte material. In one embodiment, the second material beam isdirected to the same location on the substrate as the electrolytematerial. The energized ion beam assists in controlling growth of thestructure of the electrolyte film. The ion beam is unfocused in oneembodiment. The ion beam is focused in another embodiment.

[0161] The deposition of the electrolyte film includes directing anelectrolyte material to a location at least partially in contact withthe cathode film, while simultaneously supplying energy to theelectrolyte material. In one embodiment, the energy is supplied byenergized particles. In some such embodiments, the energized particlesare energized ions. In some such embodiments, the energized particlesfrom the assist source are of a different material than the electrolytematerial. The energized particles supply energy to the electrolyte firstmaterial to assist in the growth of a desirable, solid electrolyte-filmstructure. Moreover, this controls the stoichiometry of the growingelectrolyte film.

[0162] In one example, the electrolyte material is a lithium phosphorusoxynitride. In some embodiments, the assist source provides ions thatprovide energy in a range of about 5 eV to about 5000 eV to the lithiumphosphorus oxynitride (“LiPON”). Control of the energy in the ionsproduced by the assist source provides in situ control for growing alithium phosphorus oxynitride structure at the location. The energy fromthe ions assists the formation of the lithium phosphorus oxynitridematerial into a desirable structure at the time of deposition. In oneembodiment, the gas used to form the ions is used to control thestoichiometry of the growing electrolyte film. For example, an ionizedassist beam of O₂ is used to control the growth and stoichiometry of alithium phosphorus oxynitride material. In another embodiment, anionized assist beam of N₂ is used. In this embodiment, the N₂ not onlycontrols growth and stoichiometry of the electrolyte film, but alsoinjects additional nitrogen into the electrolyte film. This is desirabledue to the ionic transportivity of a LiPON electrolyte film is dependanton the amount of nitrogen in the film.

[0163]FIG. 2D shows one embodiment of a method for fabricating anenergy-storage device. Steps 251, 253, 257, 261, and 263 aresubstantially similar to the steps described above with reference toFIG. 2B. Step 255C is a step for depositing a cathode film at leastpartially on the cathode contact film. In an embodiment, the cathodefilm is deposited as described above with reference to FIG. 2B. In otherembodiments, the cathode film is deposited according to other depositionprocesses known in the art. Step 259D is a step for depositing anelectrode material to a location at least partially on the electrolytefilm, while simultaneously supplying energized particles to theelectrode material. In one embodiment, the energized particles aredirected to the same location as the electrode material. In anembodiment, the energized particles are energized ions. The energizedions, in an embodiment, include a second material that is different thanthe first material. The energized particles or the ion beam assist incontrolling growth of the structure of the electrode material. Step259D, in some embodiments, is used to form an anode film for asolid-state thin-film battery. The anode film is in electrical andphysical contact with the anode contact and electrolyte films.

[0164] The deposition of the anode film includes directing an electrodematerial to a location at least partially in contact with theelectrolyte film, while simultaneously supplying energized particles ofa second material. The energized particles supply energy to theelectrode material to assist in the growth of a desirable crystalstructure in the anode film. Moreover, this controls the stoichiometryof the growing film. In one embodiment, the electrode material includesa lithium-intercalation material used as a battery anode. In anembodiment, the anode includes is a lithium metal or a lithium alloy. Inanother embodiment, the anode includes a carbonaceous material, such asgraphite or diamond-like carbon. In another embodiment, the anodeincludes a metal oxide, for example, RuO or VaO. In another embodiment,the anode includes a nitride material. A secondary source providesparticles, which are ions in some embodiments, that provide energy in arange of about 5 eV to about 3000 eV to the lithium-intercalationmaterial. Control of the energy in the ions produced by the secondarysource provides in situ control for growing a lithium-intercalationcrystalline structure at the location. The energy from the ions assiststhe formation of lithium-intercalation materials into a crystallinestructure at the time of deposition. In one embodiment, the gas used toform the ions is used to control the stoichiometry of the growing,crystalline film.

[0165] The crystalline structure of an electrode thin film formedaccording to the teachings herein has a higher order than those achievedby conventional film forming techniques. Conventional techniques rely ona high-temperature, post-deposition anneal that affects the substrateand other layers as well as the film intended to reorder and crystallizethe structure of that film. In contrast, the present invention providesa controlled energy source at the time of deposition or after the timeof deposition that reorders the surface of the deposition film withoutsubstantially heating the underlying layers or substrate. In someembodiments, the energy is provided while depositing each atomic layerof a film such that each atomic layer is ordered as crystallizes intothe film. Examples of such energy sources include an ion beam thateither react with the adatoms being deposited and/or provide kineticenergy to assist in deposition of the film. Other examples of energysources include high temperature, short duration heat sources, shortduration plasma sources, lasers, other high intensity photo sources thatreorder the crystal structure adjacent the surface of the film withoutaffecting other layers or the substrate. A highly ordered crystallinecathode or anode is desirably achieved according to the teachingsdescribed herein.

[0166] While the above fabrication process describes forming cathode andanode films in a certain order, other embodiments reverse the order ofthe cathode film and anode film. Moreover, the fabrication processdescribes forming cathode and anode films, for example in a battery. Insome embodiments, the cathode and anode films are electrodes of abattery. Other embodiments include films forming various layers ofsupercapacitors. Supercapacitors operate In these embodiments, at leastone of the films forming the supercapacitor, e.g., electrode films 71,75 and electrolyte and/or dielectric film 73, have improved crystallinestructure, crystallite size, or fewer defects without resorting to ahigh temperature anneal of the entire structure to provide theseproperties. Accordingly, techniques and systems for fabricating thinfilms for use in an energy-storage device as described herein areapplicable to both solid-state batteries and solid-state capacitors.

[0167] In another embodiment, the thin-film energy-storage device isformed on a substrate. A contact film, which is electrically conductiveand does not react with a subsequently deposited, adjacent cathode film,is formed on the substrate. The contact film acts as a barrier betweenthe substrate and the cathode film. The contact film further acts as acurrent collector and as a connection between the cathode film andcircuits that are external to the energy-storage device. In anembodiment, the contact film has a thickness of greater than 0.3microns.

[0168]FIG. 3A shows a deposition apparatus 305 including a reactionchamber 307 in which is positioned a substrate 309 on which anenergy-storage device is to be fabricated. Reaction chamber 307, in oneembodiment, is a sealed chamber that holds gases for the reaction andthat provides a sub-atmospheric pressure. In some embodiments, it isdesirable to hold the pressure in the chamber less than about 1×10⁻³Torr. A first material source 311 is provided in the chamber 307. Thefirst source 311 produces a beam of adatoms 312 of a first material tobe deposited on the substrate 309. In one embodiment, the first materialsource 311 is a physical vapor deposition source. In one suchembodiment, the material source 311 is an e-beam source. In another suchembodiment, the first source 311 is an arc source including, forexample, a cathodic-arc source, an anodic-arc source, and a CAVAD arcsource. Arc sources are particularly suited for use as a source as theyeffectively operate in a chamber that is operated at low temperatures.In another embodiment, the first source 311 is a physical depositionsource including, for example, a sputtering source. In anotherembodiment, the source 311 is a chemical vapor deposition sourceincluding, for example, a direct ion source using a hydrocarbonprecursor gas. Beam 312 is focused on a location 319 on the substrate309 whereat the material of the beam 312 is deposited to form a film ofan energy-storage device. An assist source 313 is provided in thechamber 307 and produces a beam of energized particles 314 directed atleast adjacent to the location 319 on the substrate 309. In someembodiments, the assist source is an energized ion-producing source. Insome embodiment, the assist source 313 is offset from the first source311 such that the beams from these sources are not coincident. Theenergized particle beam 314 provides the energy that is required tocontrol the growth and stoichiometry of the material in the first beam312 into a crystalline structure on the substrate 309 as is explained ingreater detail herein. In one embodiment, the energized particle beam314 also provides elements that are required in the film beingdeposited. In another embodiment, beam 314 is directed at least nearlocation 319 such that sufficient energy to form the desired crystalstructure and stoichiometry of the film being deposited is supplied bybeam 314 to the material in first beam 312. In some embodiments, thedeposition system 305 includes at least one additional assist source313A. In some embodiments, each of the sources 313A provides anadditional assist beam 314A that provides energy to arriving adatoms atthe substrate. Various embodiments of assist beams 314 are describedbelow.

[0169]FIG. 3B shows another embodiment of a deposition apparatus 305.The assist source 313 produces an energy beam 314 that travels along apath that is essentially normal to the substrate 319. The source ofmaterial to be deposited 311 is offset from assist source 313. In someembodiments, source 311 produces a beam of adatoms 312 that travelsalong a path that is non-normal to the substrate 319. The energy beamsupplies energy to the adatoms from beam 312 as described herein.

[0170]FIG. 4 is a view substantially similar to FIG. 3A, except thatdepositing apparatus 405 includes an assist source 413 for producing theenergized beam that is pivotally mounted to a bracket fixed in thechamber 307. The assist source 413 pivots to direct the energizedparticle beam 414 at a desired impingement angle to the surface of thesubstrate 309. In an embodiment, the impingement angle is in the rangeof about 15 degrees to about 70 degrees from normal to the substrate.Accordingly, in some embodiments, the impingement angle is variable. Inone embodiment, the impingement angle is about 45 degrees. In someembodiments, the deposition system 405 includes at least one additionalassist source 413A. In some embodiments, each of the sources 413Aprovides an additional assist beam 414A that provides energy to arrivingadatoms at the substrate. In some embodiments, the energy provided byassist beam 414 differs from the energy provided by at least one ofassist beams 414A. In some embodiments, the assist beam 414 and 414Aneed not simultaneously transmit energy to the adatoms. In someembodiments, the means by which the beams 414 and 414A transmit energyare different. In some embodiments, the material in beams 414 and 414Aare different.

[0171]FIG. 5A is a view substantially similar to FIG. 3 except thatdepositing apparatus 505 includes a plurality of first depositionsources 511. In one embodiment, each one of the first deposition sources511 directs its respective beam 512 to the location 319 on the substrate309. In some embodiments, every one of the first sources 511 produces abeam 512 including the same material. In other embodiments, at least ofthe first sources 511 produces a beam 512 of a material that isdifferent than that of another of the first sources 511. In someembodiments, the materials from the plurality of first beams 512 combineat the location 319 to form the desired film. In other embodiments, thematerials in first beams 512 combine with material from assist beam 314to form the desired film. In one embodiment, one of the first sources511 directs it's beam 512 to the substrate 319 but away from thelocation 319. In some embodiments, a plurality of assist sources 313provide energy to the adatoms of beams 512.

[0172]FIG. 5B shows another embodiment of a depositing apparatus 505B. Aplurality of assist sources 313 is positioned to provide energy to aforming film at the substrate 319. A plurality of material sources 511A,511B, and 511C supply material to the chamber 307 and adjacent thesurface of the substrate 319. In some embodiments, each of the materialsources 511A, 511B, and 511C provide a same material and, thus, have theability to provide a greater quantity than one of the sources alone. Insome embodiments, at least one of the material sources 511A, 511B, and511C provides a material different than another of the material sources.In some embodiments, these different materials react at the in chamber307 to create the adatom material that will form a film on the substrate319. In some embodiments, at least one of the material sources 511A,511B, and 511C provides a precursor material into chamber 307 andanother of the material sources provides a reactant material into thechamber. The precursor and reactant material react together to createthe material that will form the film. In some embodiments, at least oneof the material sources 511A, 511B, and 511C includes a chemical reactorin which chemicals react. This source then injects the resultantmaterial into the chamber. The resultant material is included in thefilm fabrication process.

[0173]FIG. 6 is a view substantially similar to FIG. 5A except thatdepositing apparatus 605 includes a plurality of first depositionsources 511 and a pivotable assist source 413. In some embodiments, thisprovides more material to a given deposition location. In someembodiments, this provides deposition at multiple locations. In stillother embodiments, this allows different materials from differentsources to be combined.

[0174]FIG. 7 shows another embodiment of a depositing apparatus 705according to the teachings of the present invention. Depositingapparatus 705 includes a reaction chamber 707 in which is positioned anelongate, flexible substrate 709 on which an energy-storage device is tobe fabricated. The substrate 709 is fed from a source roll 710 over anarched thermal control surface 715 and taken up by an end roll 718. Afirst material source 711 is provided in the chamber 707 and is aphysical deposition source. First source 711 produces a beam of adatoms712 of a material to be deposited on the substrate 709. In oneembodiment, the first source 711 is an arc source including, forexample, a cathodic arc source, an anodic arc source, and a CAVAD arcsource. In another embodiment, the first source 711 is a physical vapordeposition source including, for example, a sputtering source. Inanother embodiment, source 711 is a chemical vapor deposition source.Moreover, source 711, in some embodiments, represents a plurality ofdifferent material sources. Beam 712 is focused on a location 719 on thesubstrate 709 whereat the adatoms in the beam are deposited to form afilm layer of an energy-storage device. An assist source 713 is providedin the chamber 707 and produces a beam of energized particles 714directed at the substrate 709. In an embodiment, the assist source 713produces a beam of energized ions 714. The energized particle beam 714provides the energy required to control growth and stoichiometry of thedeposited material of the first beam 712. Thus, a crystalline structureis formed on the substrate 709 as is explained in greater detail herein.The substrate 709, in one embodiment, is an elastomer, polymer, orplastic web or sheet on which the energy-storage device is fabricated.Substrate 709, being elongated, allows a plurality of energy-storagedevices to be deposited on successive locations of the substrate,thereby improving the rate of energy device production. Moreover, aplurality of deposition apparatuses 705 or sources 711, in someembodiments, are provided for simultaneously depositing a plurality offilms at different locations on the substrate 709.

[0175] The thermal control surface 715 is connected to a thermal source725, which controls the temperature of surface 715. The substrate 709 isin thermodynamic contact with surface 715 to thereby control thetemperature of the substrate as needed for a particular depositionprocess on a particular substrate. In one embodiment, the thermal sourceis a coolant source, for example a cryogenic vacuum pump that releasescompressed helium toward the surface 715 to cool it. The use of athermally controlled surface 715 in direct contact with the substrate709, especially when the direct contact is aligned or coincident withthe location whereat a thin film is being formed, allows the use ofsubstrates that have lower thermal degradation temperatures than arepossible using conventional solid-state thin-film battery fabricationprocesses

[0176] The above provides descriptions of various embodiments of systemsin which the present invention is performed to produce energy-storagedevices or energy-conversion devices. It is within the scope of thepresent invention to combine the elements of the systems in differentways than shown and described as long as the methods described hereinare performable with such a system. For example, in some embodiments,the flexible substrate 709 and rolls 710, 718 can be combined with anyof the embodiments shown in FIGS. 3A-6. In some embodiments, the thermalsource 725 is also combinable with any of the embodiments of FIGS. 3A-6.In some embodiments, the pivotable assist sources 413 are combinablewith any of the embodiments of FIGS. 3A, 3B, 5A, 5B, and 7. In someembodiments, the material sources 511A, 511B, and 51 IC are combinablewith embodiments of FIGS. 3A-5A and 6-7.

[0177] In one embodiment, the electrode second film, e.g., films 59 or71 is a lithium-intercalation material which overlays at least part ofthe first film, e.g., contact films 57 or 63, but does not extend beyondthe boundary of the first film. Thus, the intercalation second filmremains in a solid state during discharging and charging of theenergy-storage device. In some embodiments, the second film is depositedusing the first deposition source simultaneously with the secondarysource supplying energetic ions to the growing second film. In someembodiments, the first deposition source is a physical vapor depositionsource. In some embodiments, the secondary source is an ion sourcesupplying energetic ions from a source gas comprising oxygen (e.g., O₂)or nitrogen (e.g., N₂). The source gas, in another embodiment, comprisesa noble gas, e.g., argon, xenon, helium, neon, and krypton. The sourcegas, in yet another embodiment, comprises a hydrocarbon material such asa hydrocarbon precursor. Selection of the secondary source gas is basedon the desired effect on the stoichiometry of the deposited film. Thesecondary source, in one embodiment, provides a focused beam ofenergized ions. The secondary source, in one embodiment, provides anunfocused beam of energized ions. The energized ions provide energy tothe lithium-intercalation material in the range of about 5 eV to about3000 eV. In one embodiment, the energy range of is about 5 eV to about1000 eV. The energy range in a further embodiment is about 10 eV toabout 500 eV. The energy range in a further embodiment is about 30 eV toabout 300 eV. In another embodiment, the energy range is in the range ofabout 60 eV to 150 eV. In another embodiment, the energy range is about140 eV. In an embodiment, the second film has a thickness of greaterthan 10 microns. In one embodiment, the second film has a thickness inthe range of about 10 to 20 microns. In one embodiment, the second filmhas a thickness in the range of about 1 to 5 microns.

[0178] An electrolyte third film, e.g., films 61, 61C or 73, havingionic transport qualities but not being electrically conductive (anelectrolyte) is deposited so as to completely overlay the seconddeposited film. In one embodiment, the third film is deposited using afirst deposition source and a secondary source supplying energetic ionsto the growing film. In some embodiments, the first deposition source isa physical vapor deposition source. In some embodiments, the secondarysource is an ion source with the capability of supplying energetic ionshaving an energy greater than 5 eV. In another embodiment, the energyrange is about 5 eV to about 3000 eV. In one embodiment, the energyrange of is about 5 eV to about 1000 eV. The energy range in a furtherembodiment is about 10 eV to about 500 eV. The energy range in a furtherembodiment is about 30 eV to about 300 eV. In another embodiment, theenergy range is in the range of about 60 eV to 150 eV. In anotherembodiment, the energy of the ions from the secondary source is about140 eV. In some embodiments, the secondary source includes oxygen (e.g.,O₂) or nitrogen (e.g., N₂) gas. The secondary source gas, in anotherembodiment, includes a noble gas, e.g., argon, xenon, helium, neon, andkrypton. The secondary source gas, in another embodiment, includes ahydrocarbon material such as a hydrocarbon precursor. Selection of thesecondary source gas is based on the desired effect on the stoichiometryof the deposited film. The secondary source, in one embodiment, providesa focused beam of energized ions. The secondary source, in oneembodiment, provides a non-focused beam of energized ions. It isdesirable to make the electrolyte, third layer as thin as possible andprevent the cathode and anode layers from shorting. In an embodiment,the third film has a thickness of less than 1 micron. In one embodiment,the third film has a thickness in of less than 5,000 Angstroms. Inanother embodiment, the third film has a thickness of less than 1,000Angstroms. In another embodiment, the third film has a range of about 10Angstroms to about 100 Angstroms.

[0179] In another embodiment, the third film is deposited using a firstsource supplying energetic ions (5 to 3000 eV) to a material source(target) at an impingement angle of 15 to 70 degrees and a second sourcesupplying energetic ions to the growing film. The first depositionsource includes a beam of focused energetic ions from a source gas. Thesource gas includes one of the sources gases described herein.

[0180] An anode, fourth film, e.g., film 65 or 75 includes from alithium-intercalation material that is deposited on and overlays thethird film but not contacting first film (barrier) or second film(cathode). In one embodiment, the fourth film is deposited using a firstdeposition source simultaneously with a secondary source supplyingenergetic ions to the growing fourth film. In some embodiments, firstdeposition source is a physical vapor deposition source. In someembodiments, the secondary source is an ion source supplying energeticions from a source gas that includes oxygen (e.g., O₂) or nitrogen(e.g., N₂). The source gas, in another embodiment, includes a noble gas,e.g., argon, xenon, helium, neon, and krypton. The source gas, inanother embodiment, includes a hydrocarbon material such as ahydrocarbon precursor. Selection of the secondary source gas is based onthe desired effect on the stoichiometry of the deposited film. Thesecondary source, in one embodiment, provides a focused beam ofenergized ions. The secondary source, in another embodiment, provides anunfocused beam of energized ions. The energized ions provide energy tothe lithium-intercalation material in the range of about 5 eV to about3,000 eV. In one embodiment, the energy range of is about 5 eV to about1,000 eV. The energy range in a further embodiment is about 10 eV toabout 500 eV. The energy range in a further embodiment is about 30 eV toabout 00 eV. In another embodiment, the energy range is in the range ofabout 60 eV to 150 eV. In another embodiment, the energy range of theions from the secondary source is about 140 eV. In an embodiment, thefourth film has a thickness of greater than 10 microns. In oneembodiment, the fourth film has a thickness in the range of about 10 to40 microns.

[0181] In another embodiment, the fourth film is deposited by plasmadecomposition of hydrocarbon pre-cursor(s) at the surface of thesubstrate thereby forming a lithium-intercalation anode. In someembodiments, deposition is performed by plasma enhanced CVD usinghydrocarbon precursors. In one embodiment, the deposition includesdopants such as N₂. In one embodiment, a secondary source providesenergized ions to assist in the deposition of the fourth film. Theenergized ions provide energy in the range as described herein. In someembodiments, the secondary source is the same as any described herein.

[0182] In another embodiment, the anode, fourth film is deposited bydirect ion beam deposition of a lithium-intercalation material usinghydrocarbon precursors. The first deposition source provides a beam offocused energetic ions (5 to 3000 eV) from a source gas hydrocarbonprecursor directed at the target material. In one embodiment, an ionsource supplies energetic ions to assist in growing the fourth film andis a secondary source as described herein.

[0183] A contact, fifth film, e.g., film 65 or 77, which is electricallyconductive and does not react with the fourth film, is formed in contactwith at least part of the fourth film. The fifth film does not contactthe second film (cathode). In an embodiment, the fifth film has athickness of greater than 0.5 microns. The fifth film acts as an anodecurrent collector for contact to external circuitry.

[0184] In some embodiments, a passivation, sixth film 79, which iselectrically non-conductive and chemically inert, essentially overlaysthe energy-storage device as formed thus far, i.e., all the second,third, and fourth films, so that same are packaged and free fromenvironmental contaminants that may react with these films and degradeperformance of the energy-storage device. Environmental contaminants mayinclude further fabrication materials for devices with theenergy-storage device integrated therewith. In some embodiments, thefirst and fifth contact films are partially exposed outside the sixthfilm for connection to circuitry outside the energy-storage device.

[0185] The substrate 55, 309 or 709, on which the films described hereinare deposited, includes any material capable of supporting a thin filmand being able to withstand the deposition process described herein. Inone embodiment, the substrate is formed of a material having atemperature at which it will begin to degrade due to thermal effects ofless than 700 degrees Celsius. A further embodiment includes a substratehaving such a temperature at which it experiences thermal degradation ofless than or equal to about 300 degrees Celsius. Thermal degradation ofthe substrate includes loss of shape of the substrate, loss ofsufficient rigidity to support an energy-storage device, chemicalbreakdown of the substrate, cross-linking of materials on the substrateand/or films, melting, and combustion. Examples of substrates includesilicon wafers and silicon on insulator structures. Other examples ofsubstrate materials include metals on which an insulator layer is formedprior to formation of the energy-storage device as described herein. Inanother example, the metal may act as a contact for the energy-storagedevice with insulator layers electrically separating the electrolytefilm, the anode film and the anode contact from the metal substrate.Examples of other materials that have a low thermal degradationtemperature that are suitable for fabricating an energy-storage deviceas disclosed herein include paper, fabrics (natural and synthetic),polymers, plastics, glasses, and ceramics.

[0186] The substrate 55, 309, or 709 has a form that is applicable tothe type of apparatus used to fabricate the energy-storage deviceaccording to the teachings herein. One example of the substrate shape isa semiconductor wafer. Other forms of the substrate include elongatewebs, weaves, foils, and sheets. It is within the scope of the presentinvention to provide a substrate having sufficient size on which aplurality of energy-storage devices and/or a plurality of energyconversion devices are fabricated.

[0187] One embodiment of the substrate 55, 309, or 709 includes asubstrate that retains its support characteristics during an in situtemperature treatment. In the in situ temperature treatment, thesubstrate is placed in intimate contact with a thermally controlledsurface, e.g., surface 715. In one embodiment, the thermally controlledsurface is a cooled surface such that heat associated with deposition ofany of the films described herein are thermally balanced so as not tothermally degrade the substrate or any other structural elementpreviously formed on the substrate. Thus, in some embodiments,substrates having low thermal degradation temperatures, such as lowmelting points or low combustion temperatures, are used as substrates inthe present fabrication methods. For example, substrates includeceramics, glasses, polymers, plastics and paper based materials. In anembodiment according to the teachings herein, the substrate is a plasticor metal substrate on which a plurality of energy-storage devices isdeposited. The substrate is then divided into separate dies having atleast one energy-storage device thereon. The dies then can be worked,e.g., cold worked, into a desired shape as dictated by theenergy-storage device application.

[0188] In another embodiment, the substrate is made of a flexiblematerial, e.g., substrate 709. The flexible substrate is formed into anelongate roll that is caused to pass over a curved object, which forcesthe material into intimate contact with the surface of the curvedobject. The curved object is a thermally controlled device (e.g., device725 as shown in FIG. 7) to control the temperature of the substrate andbalance the effect of heat generated on the substrate and films thereonduring deposition. For example, the object is hollow and sealed from theenvironment of the deposition vessel. In some embodiments, the hollowspace is filled with a coolant, e.g., cryogenic gas such as gas obtainedfrom liquid nitrogen (LN₂) or liquid helium, with the coolant beingconstantly replenished as needed. An area of intimate contact betweenthe substrate and object is coincident and opposite the location ofmaterial impingement on the substrate from the deposition source. Inanother embodiment, the coolant is chilled water that is constantlybeing replenished. In another embodiment, the curved object is thermallycontrolled by an electro-thermal cooling apparatus. In anotherembodiment, the curved object is a drum, which is either stationary orrotatable about its axis in the direction of substrate movement.

[0189] In another embodiment, the substrate 55 or 309 is formed of astrip of rigid material. The rigid substrate is made to pass over acooled, thermally controlled surface. Examples of the cooled surface aredescribed herein. One such example is a cooled surface that is cooled bythe release of cryogenic fluid such as liquid N₂ or liquid helium intopassages within the body of object having the surface but sealed fromthe environment of the deposition chamber. Other coolant sources includechilled water, cryogenic gas, and electro-thermal devices.

[0190]FIG. 8 shows a photovoltaic cell 800, e.g., solar cell, thatincludes a transparent electrode 810. Transparent electrode 810 includesa transparent supporting film 820 and a transparent, electricallyconductive film 830 formed on film 820. Examples of supporting film 820include glass and transparent plastics. In some embodiments, conductivefilm 830 includes indium tin oxide or tin oxide. In use, light 890,enters solar cell 800 through the transparent electrode 810. In someuses of embodiments, light 890 is solar light. A first semiconductorfilm 840 is positioned in contact with the transparent electrode 810. Asecond semiconductor film 860 is positioned in contact with the firstsemiconductor film 840, thereby, forming a semiconductor junction 850.In some embodiments, second semiconductor film 860 includes a bulk,highly doped region 862 and a high quality region 863 adjacent the firstsemiconductor film 840. In this embodiment, the junction is formed bythe first semiconductor film 840 and region 863. An electrical contactfilm 870 contacts the second semiconductor film 860. First and secondconductive leads 880 respectively contact the transparent, electricallyconductive film 830 and the electrical contact film 870 to carry poweraway from the cell.

[0191] In some embodiments, the materials and compositions ofphotovoltaic cell 800 are conventional CdS/CdTe materials such as isdescribed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,207,119, which is incorporated byreference; with the additional processing according to the presentinvention to anneal or treat the surface (e.g., by ion-assist beam) ofthe films as they are deposited. In other embodiments, the compositionsused are as described in the following publications, each of which isincorporated by reference: R. W. Birkmire et al., “Polycrystalline ThinFilm Solar Cells: Present Status and Future Potential,” Annu. Rev.Mater. Sci. 1997.27:625-653 (1997); T. L. Chu et al., “13.4% Efficientthin-film CdS/CdTe Solar Cells,” J. Appl. Phys. 70 (12) (15th Dec.1991); T. Yoshida, “Photovoltaic Properties of Screen-Printed CdTe/CdSSolar Cells on Indium-Tin-Oxide Coated Glass Substrates,” J.Electrochem. Soc., Vol. 142, No. 9, (September 1995); T. Aramoto et al.,“16% Efficient Thin-Film CdS/CdTe Solar Cells,” Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. Vol.36 pp 6304-6305 (October 1997); R. B. King, ed. “Encyclopedia ofInorganic Chemistry” Vol. 3., pp 1556-1602, John Wiley & Sons Ltd.,(1994).

[0192] The brief description of the operation of a heterojunction,photovoltaic solar cell that follows is to illustrate how themethodology of the present invention is applied to the fabrication ofheterojunction, photovoltaic solar cells. It is believed that thepresent invention provides means and methods for fabricatingphotovoltaic cells having superior efficiency.

[0193] In a heterojunction photovoltaic cell, the semiconductor filmsare formed of different materials. For a rectifying junction, thesemiconductor films must also be of different type, that is p or n type.The junction between the two semiconductor films is both a pn junctionand a heterojunction. The first semiconductor film on which solar lightis incident has a band gap higher than that of the second semiconductorfilm. The band gap of a semiconductor is the energy separation betweenthe semiconductor valance band and the conduction band. The band gap ofthis first semiconductor film is chosen so that it corresponds to lightin the short wavelength region of the solar spectrum. Photons of lighthaving energy equal to or greater than the band gap of the firstsemiconductor film are strongly absorbed, but photons of light of energyless than the band gap of the first semiconductor pass through the firstsemiconductor and enter the second semiconductor film. Examples ofmaterials used for the first semiconductor film include CdS, ZnS, CdZnS,CdO, ZnO, CdZnO, or other wide band gap semiconductors like SiC, GaN,InGaN, and AlGaN. The second semiconductor film is chosen from materialsthat have band gaps that correspond well to the long wavelength onset ofsolar radiation. Materials such as CdTe, CuInSe₂, InP, GaAs, InGaAs,InGaP, and Si are examples of materials for the second semiconductorfilm.

[0194] A “built in” electric field exists at the junction between thetwo semiconductor films due to the migration of majority carriers fromone semiconductor type into the other. That is, electrons from then-type semiconductor migrate into the p-type semiconductor leaving a netpositive charge on the n-semiconductor side of the junction. Theconverse happens to the p-type semiconductor. Holes from the p-typesemiconductor migrate into n-type semiconductor leaving a net negativecharge on the p-semiconductor side of the junction. Absorption of aphoton in one of the semiconductor films 840, 860 results in thecreation of an electron and a hole. When the photon is absorbed in thevicinity of the pn junction, the built in electric field separates thetwo carriers in opposite directions, electrons are driven to the n-typematerial and holes are driven to the p-type film. The separated chargesresult in a potential difference between the two semiconductor films840, 860. This potential difference is used to drive a current throughan external circuit thereby converting solar energy (photons) intoelectrical energy.

[0195] One embodiment of a heterojunction, photovoltaic solar cell is ann-type, polycrystalline CdS film as the first semiconductor film 840 anda p-type, polycrystalline CdTe film as the second semiconductor film860. CdS has a band gap of 2.43 eV that corresponds to 510 nm. CdTe hasa band gap of 1.44 eV that corresponds to 860 nm. Solar radiationshorter than 860 nm and longer than 510 nm is absorbed in the p-typeCdTe semiconductor film 860. Each absorbed photon creates an electronhole pair. If the minority carrier, the electron in p-type CdTe, has alifetime sufficiently long so that it can drift to the pn junction andbe swept across the junction to the n-type CdS film, the absorbed photoncontributes to solar cell photocurrent. Minority carrier lifetimes inp-type CdTe are long, which results in high quantum efficiencies (numberof electrons created per number of photons absorbed at a particularwavelength) of ˜90% between 860 nm and 510 nm. Most photons absorbed inthe CdTe film contribute to the solar cell photocurrent.

[0196] Solar light at wavelengths shorter than 510 nm is absorbed in then-type CdS film and creates an electron-hole pair. Minority carriers inn-type CdS, holes, have short lifetimes. Most photogenerated holesrecombine with electrons in the n-type CdS film before they can be sweptacross the junction to the p-type CdTe film. Recombined electron-holepairs do not contribute to the solar cell photocurrent. Creation ofelectron-hole pairs by absorption of solar radiation in the CdS film isdetrimental to the overall efficiency of the solar cell. High-efficiencysolar cells make the CdS film as thin as possible, ˜50 nm, so that somefraction of solar radiation shorter than 510 nm can pass through the CdSfilm and be absorbed in the CdTe film where the photo-generatedelectron-hole pairs can be efficiently collected. A problem with thisprocedure is that, in some embodiments, thinning the n-type CdS filmincreases the series resistance of the cell, which also decreases theefficiency. Additionally, the CdS film must have some reasonablethickness, ˜50 nm, to form a stable pn junction.

[0197] The deposition methods according to the present invention areused to enhance the performance of heterojunction solar cells bycreating higher quality semiconductor films 840, 860. In someembodiments, semiconductor films 840, 860 have structures that providesufficiently long minority-carrier lifetimes to allow the minoritycarriers to be swept across the junction and contribute to the solarcell photocurrent. In some embodiments, higher quality films 840, 860are produced by providing energy focused at the surface where a film isbeing formed. In some embodiments, the energy is supplied simultaneouslywith the material to be deposited on a substrate. In some embodiments,higher quality films are created by depositing the primary material, forexample, CdS in the film 840, using a physical vapor depositiontechnique while impinging energized particles from a second source onthe film surface during the deposition. In some embodiments, the secondsource includes an ion source. In some embodiments, the ion sourceprovides a beam of ions. In some embodiments, the beam of ions includesargon or xenon. In some embodiments, the beam of ions includes sulfurfor depositing sulfide materials. In some embodiments, the beam of ionsincludes oxygen for depositing oxide materials. The effect of supplyingfocused energy is to increase the extent of crystallinity of thematerial being deposited. Another effect of supplying focused energy isto decrease defects that provide sites for electron-hole recombination.A further enhancement of the solar cell efficiency is achieved by usingthe focused energy to control the quality of the physical interfacebetween the first semiconductor film 840 and the second semiconductorfilm 860.

[0198] In an embodiment, the first film 840 is fabricated by providingenergy to the material being deposited so that the material has fewerdefects. With fewer defects the minority carriers will have longerlifetimes in film 840 as the will be fewer recombination sites. In someembodiments, first film 840 includes an n-type CdS material. In someembodiments, the first film 840 is formed in a range of about 40nanometers to about 100 nanometers. In some embodiments, the first film840 has a thickness of about 50 nanometers. In some embodiments, thefirst film 840 is formed in a range of about 40 nanometers to about 100nanometers.

[0199] In some embodiments, the second film 860 includes two regions862, 863. Region 863 is a high-quality region formed according to theteachings of the present invention. In some embodiments, region 862 isgrown in a faster manner using conventional methods. In otherembodiments, film 862 is merely a further growth of film 863 using theteachings of the present invention. High quality includes, among otherthings, fewer defects, larger crystal size, or certain structures beingformed. Specifically, energy is supplied to the material of region 863as the material is formed on the first film 840. The energy is suppliedaccording to the teachings herein, for example, by an ion-assist beam.In some embodiments, the energy is supplied by energized particles. Insome embodiments, the energy is supplied by energized ions. In someembodiments, the energy is supplied by light or heat, e.g., a brieflaser sweep of the surface. Due to the application of energy while theregion 863 is being formed, a post-deposition high-temperature anneal isnot required.

[0200] In some embodiments, the high quality region 863 has fewerdefects than p-type regions of other photovoltaics. In some embodiments,region 863 has a thickness of at least about 50 nanometers. In someembodiments, region 863 has a thickness in a range of about 50nanometers to about 100 nanometers.

[0201] In some embodiments, region 862 is larger than region 863. Insome embodiments, region 862 has a thickness of greater than 500nanometers. In some embodiments, region 862 has a thickness in a rangeof 1 micron to 5 microns. In some embodiments, region 862 has athickness of greater than 3 microns. In addition, region 862 is a highlydoped p-type material.

[0202] In some embodiments, a chamber in which the films 840, 860 arebeing deposited is held at a temperature of less than 650 degreesCelsius. In some embodiments, the temperature of the chamber is lessthan about 300 degrees Celsius. In some embodiments, the temperature isbetween about 30 degrees Celsius and about 275 degrees Celsius. In someembodiments, the temperature is between about 100 degrees Celsius andabout 200 degrees Celsius. In an embodiment, the substrate, e.g., glasslayer 820 and conductor layer 830 for depositing film 840; glass layer820, conductor layer 830, and film 840 for depositing region 863; andglass layer 820, conductor layer 830, film 840, and region 863 fordepositing region 862, is not externally heated. Thus, the temperatureof the substrate is generally equal to the temperature of the chamberplus minor heating effects of depositing the film. In contrast to priormethods for fabricating layers having sufficient quality such that thecell approaches about 10 percent efficiency, an embodiment of thepresent invention does not heat the substrate. Accordingly,manufacturing efficiencies are achieved while maintaining sufficientefficiency.

[0203] It is believed that some embodiments of the present inventionwill have conversion efficiencies of greater than about 5 percent. It isbelieved that some embodiments of the present invention will haveconversion efficiencies of greater than about 6 percent. It is believedthat some embodiments of the present invention will have conversionefficiencies of greater than about 7 percent. It is believed that someembodiments of the present invention will have conversion efficienciesof greater than about 8 percent. It is believed that some embodiments ofthe present invention will have conversion efficiencies of greater thanabout 9 percent. It is believed that some embodiments of the presentinvention will have conversion efficiencies of greater than about 10percent. It is believed that some embodiments of the present inventionwill have conversion efficiencies of greater than about 11 percent.

[0204] Other embodiments for fabricating energy conversion devices, suchas a photovoltaic cell 800, are fabricated according to many of theembodiments described herein with reference to energy storage devices.The thin films of the energy conversion devices are improved in asimilar manner as described herein for the thin films of energy storagedevices.

[0205] In contrast to some conventional methods for improvingperformance of a photovoltaic cell, the present methods can producephotovoltaic cells having an enhanced conversion efficiency without heattreating during deposition, e.g., heating the substrate, or apost-deposition high temperature anneal.

[0206]FIG. 9A shows a thin-film energy-storage device 910A according tothe teachings of the present disclosure and an integrated circuit 940,here shown as a “flip chip.” Energy-storage device 910A includessubstrate 920 on which is formed a patterned wiring layer 922. Thewiring layer 922 is an electrically conductive layer for connectingenergy-storage device 920 to the integrated circuit 940. In someembodiments, layer 922 is formed of a metal. In one embodiment, thewiring layer 922 is patterned copper. In another embodiment, the wiringlayer is formed of nickel. In other embodiments, the wiring layer isformed of a noble metal. Wiring layer 922 includes a cathode wiringpattern 922A and an anode wiring pattern 922B, which are separate fromeach other and form opposite polarity connectors 923A and 923B toexternal circuitry, such as integrated circuit 940. Device 910A furtherincludes a cathode contact film 924 formed on at least a portion ofcathode wiring pattern 922A and an anode contact film 926 formed on atleast a portion of the anode wiring pattern 922B. A cathode film 927 isformed on the cathode contact film 924 according to the teachingsherein. An electrolyte film 928 is formed over the cathode film 926,cathode contact film 924 and a portion of the cathode-wiring pattern922A. Electrolyte film 928 separates the cathode films 922A, 924 and 927from respective anode films 922B, 926 and 932. Anode film 932 is formedon the electrolyte film and in contact with the anode contact film 926according to the teachings herein. It will be appreciated that, in oneembodiment, cathode contact film 924 and cathode wiring pattern 922A areformed as a single layer. It will be further appreciated that, in oneembodiment, anode contact film 926 and anode wiring pattern 922B areformed as a single layer. A passivation layer 934 is formed over all ofthe films except portions 923A and 923B of the wiring patterns 922A and923B, which portions are left exposed. Passivation layer 934 protectsthe films from contact to other layers, which may be formed on substrate920, and the environment, which may include elements that may react withand damage the films of the energy-storage device 910A.

[0207] In some embodiments, the cathode materials and other materialsused in the batteries above include materials discussed more in N. J.Dudney et al., “Nanocrystalline Li_(x)Mn_(1−y)O₄ Cathodes forSolid-State Thin-Film Rechargeable Lithium Batteries,” Journal of theElectrochemical Society, 146(7) 2455-2464 (1999) which is incorporatedby reference.

[0208] The integrated circuit 940 includes a first ball contact 941 anda second ball contact 942 both extending outside a package. The firstball contact 941 aligns with the exposed portion 923A of the cathodewiring pattern 922A. The second ball contact 942 aligns with the exposedportion 923B of the anode wiring pattern 922B. Integrated circuit 940 ispositioned so that the ball contacts 941 and 942 physically andelectrically contact the wiring contacts 923A and 923B, respectively.Integrated circuit 940 is fixed in position relative to the device 910Asuch that device 910A provides electrical energy to circuit 940. In someembodiments, circuit 940 is provided with circuitry for rechargingenergy-storage device 910A. It will be recognized that the presentinvention is not limited to only integrated circuit 940 being connectedto wiring contacts 923A and 923B. Other circuits, including integratedcircuits fabricated on substrate 920 and circuits with leads connectedto wiring contacts 923A and 923B, are within the scope of the presentinvention.

[0209]FIG. 9B shows another embodiment of the thin-film energy-storagedevice 910B, substantially similar elements to those described above aredesignated by the same reference numerals. After forming wiring patterns922A, 922B, an insulator layer 930 is formed on the substrate 920.Insulator layer separates the thin-film energy-storage device 910 fromother layers that may be included with substrate, 920. Insulator layer930 includes vias 931 through which cathode contact film 924 and anodecontact film 926 extend downward to connect to cathode contact wiringpattern 922A and anode wiring pattern 922B, respectively.

[0210] In one example of an energy-storage device 910 according to thepresent invention, the cathode film 927 is a LiCoO₂ deposited using afirst source of LiCoO with a secondary source of oxygen. The electrolytefilm 928 is LiPON deposited using a first source of LiPO (such asLi₃PO₄) and an assist of nitrogen. The anode film 932 is a metal, e.g.,copper, and is deposited by a first source of copper and a secondarysource of an inert material, e.g., xenon. In another embodiment, theanode film includes carbon. In yet another embodiment, the anode isformed of pure lithium. In some embodiments, the anode is a lithiumalloy. In some embodiments, the anode includes an oxide.

[0211]FIG. 9C shows a further embodiment of a thin-film energy-storagedevice 910C. This device 910C includes a seed layer 950 formed on thecathode contact 924. Seed layer 950 is formed on the cathode contact 924prior to forming the cathode film 927, as described herein, on the seedlayer 950 and substrate 920. Seed layer 950 is formed using depositiontechniques as described herein, e.g., physical vapor deposition such asarc source deposition. Seed layer 950 is a very thin, electricallyconductive layer and has a small crystal size. The seed layer 950 alsohas a high sheet resistance and is non-reactive with the materials ofadjacent films. In an embodiment, seed layer 950 has a thickness that issubstantially thinner than the adjacent electrode film 927. The materialof the seed layer 950 is chosen such that the arriving adatoms of thesubsequent material (e.g., in some embodiments, the material from thefirst source 311, 511 or 711) would have sufficient mobility to allow aperiod of activity once the adatom contacts the seed layer surface. Thisimproves nucleation of the first few molecular layers of arrivingmaterial, minimizes strain associated with lattice mismatch and assiststhe arriving material to grow in a manner consistent with the desiredcrystal structure for cathode film 927.

[0212] In some embodiments, a seed layer 955 is formed on theelectrolyte layer 928 prior to forming anode film 932, as describedherein, on the seed layer 955. Seed layer 955 improves nucleation of thefirst few molecular layers of arriving material, minimizes strainassociated with lattice mismatch and assists the arriving material togrow in a manner consistent with the desired crystal structure for anodefilm 932.

[0213] The ion transport properties of the materials used in thefabrication of energy-storage devices 910C, e.g., rechargeablebatteries, greatly influence the operation and quality of the device.For example, the total energy-storage capability of solid-state,lithium-ion batteries of a given area is limited by a depletion regionthat forms at or near the cathode/electrolyte interface. The depletionof this region and the inability for additional lithium ions to betransported out of the bulk of the cathode film 927 results in limitedcapacity and, thus, more frequent recharges. Additionally, theefficiency of the lithium ion transport through the electrolyte film 928controls and dictates the maximum discharge rate that can be achievedfor a given structure. The seed layer 950 improves the crystallinestructure of the materials subsequently deposited, i.e., a cathode film927 or an anode film. The growth of the first few atomic layers of amaterial significantly impacts its overall structure even when the finalfilm is very thick relative to the initial few atomic layers. If the“seed” material is chosen such that the surface energy kinetics areconducive to pseudo-epitaxial growth of the subsequent material, highquality cathode and anode (electrode) films 927 and 932 are achieved.Examples of materials for seed layer 950 include chromium, chromiumnitride, tantalum, tantalum nitride, tungsten, tungsten nitride,ruthenium and ruthenium nitride.

[0214] The thin-film energy-storage device fabricated according to thepresent teachings stores electrical energy by introducing ions into astorage layer and removing the ions from the storage layer to create anelectrical potential at the contacts. In one embodiment, lithium ionsare stored in an anode formed of a lithium-intercalation material withthe battery in a charged state. In some embodiments, the anode is formedof a metal or a carbonaceous material. The lithium ions travel from theanode through the electrolyte layer to a cathode, which is also formedof a lithium-intercalation material, to discharge electrical energy fromthe battery. In order to achieve sufficient energy density to operateexternal circuitry, the lithium-intercalation material cathode and anodemust intercalate (i.e., add) and de-intercalate (i.e., remove) of asubstantial mole fraction of lithium ions. It has been found that thechoice of intercalation material and fabrication techniques for thecathode determine many operating parameters of a solid-state, thin-filmbattery. The operating parameters include, but are not limited to,operating voltage range, capacity, specific power, and specific energy.One method of measuring the transport properties of ions in a battery isdiffusivity, which is measured by a diffusion coefficient. The diffusioncoefficient is a measure of how well a particular material allows ionsto diffuse into and out of the material.

[0215]FIG. 10 shows comparative data for LiCoO₂ cathode films in theform of X-ray diffraction spectra. The LiCoO₂ cathode films were createdaccording to the teachings herein and according to a control processthat did not include a secondary source assist. A first source supplieda LiCoO₂ material using an electron-beam evaporation process. An assist,second source provided energy in the form of oxygen ions impinging atthe location on the substrate whereat it is desired to grow a thinelectrode (cathode) film from the LiCoO₂ first material. The beam ofoxygen ions from the second source is not co-incident with the LiCoO₂material from the first source. Four samples of LiCoO₂ thin films weregrown according to the data in Table I. TABLE I Deposition ParametersFilm a Film b Film c Film d Electron beam power* 500  500 500 500 (W)Total gas flow, 0 10.8 10.8 10.8 O₂ + Ar, (sccm) O₂ gas ratio, NA 0.480.48 0.48 O₂/(O₂ + Ar), (%) Chamber pressure 9.2 × 10⁻⁷ 2.6 × 10⁻⁶ 3.7 ×10⁻⁶ 5.0 × 10⁻⁶ (Torr) Ion source power (W) 0 123 128 135 Ion sourceacceleration 0 41 64 135 voltage (V)

[0216] The electron beam voltage for each first source used in formingfilms a-d is 5 kV with an emission current of 100 mA.

[0217]FIG. 10 shows that the LiCoO₂ films deposited with lower energyoxygen ions from the second source, samples “b” and “c.” enhanced theformation of the desirable crystallite structure of the grown filmrelative to the non-assisted sample “a.” Specifically, a more distinct(003) orientation of the crystal structure is found in ion-assistedsamples “b” and “c” than in non-assisted sample “a.” A strong (003)X-ray diffraction peak indicates one desired crystal orientation of theLiCoO₂ thin film. The (003) X-ray diffraction peak indicates that thefilm has lattice planes parallel to the substrate, e.g., layer on whichthe film was deposited. The (003) peak width, full width at half maximum(“FWHM”) decreases and the X-ray peak increases in this series ofsamples as the energy of the oxygen ions impinging the depositedmaterial increases. These examples indicate an increasing crystallitegrain size and a larger fraction of ordered grains for sample films “b”and “c” than are found in sample film “a.” The (003) orientation ofsamples “b” and “c” is preferable over an essentially non-ordered,non-crystallized structure of sample “a.”

[0218]FIG. 10 further shows a sample “d” that was deposited using thehighest energy secondary source of this example. Sample “d” wasdeposited using a secondary source energy of 135 eV. X-ray diffractionof sample “d” shows it has the most distinct (101) orientation of allthe samples described herein. The desired (101) orientation has latticeplanes, which contain lithium ions in a LiCoO electrode material, nearlyperpendicular to the substrate. In this orientation, the lattice planesare essentially parallel to the direction of travel of the ions and inthe direction nearly perpendicular to the substrate. As this is thedirection lithium ions must travel in a lithium battery fabricatedaccording to the embodiments described herein, the preferential (101)orientation leads to superior charging and discharging characteristics.As lithium transport through the LiCoO₂ film in the (101) preferentialorientation does not rely on diffusion along grain boundaries, which cantrap lithium ions and prevent their utilization, the preferential (101)orientation also leads to greater capacity and cycle lifetime.Consequently, this preferred orientation of the LiCoO₂ thin film isproduced without additional anneal fabrication steps and the internalresistance is lower with lower capacity loss at high discharge rates.

[0219]FIG. 11 shows a comparison of the (003) x-ray diffraction peak ofan ion assisted LiCoO₂ film fabricated according to the teachings of thepresent invention and a conventionally magnetron sputtered LiCoO₂ film.Both spectra are for as-deposited films. The ion assisted LiCoO₂ film inthis spectrum is the same as the “c” sample shown in FIG. 10. Thesputtered LiCoO₂ film was fabricated in an MRC 8667 using 1200 watts RFpower, 10% O₂ in Argon, 80 sccm total gas flow (8 sccm O₂ and 72 sccmAr), 20 mTorr pressure, with the substrate table grounded. Filmthickness of the sputtered LiCoO₂ film is 5460 Angstroms. Thesignificantly sharper peak for the ion-assisted film indicates thehigher degree of long range order in this film. The peak width for thisfilm is approaching that obtained by high temperature annealing of asimilar conventionally magnetron sputtered film and exceeds thatachieved for 300 degree Celsius annealed films of LiMn₂O₄. Accordingly,the LiCoO₂ film fabricated according to the teachings of the presentinvention provides a higher degree of order than conventional LiCoO₂films without resorting to a post deposition anneal step to provide thedesired crystal structure in the film. This results in significantmanufacturing efficiencies.

[0220]FIG. 12A shows an X-ray diffraction spectra of a LiCoO₂ layerfabricated according to a conventional method of magnetron sputteringwithout the subsequent anneal step. The magnetron sputter was performedin MRC 8667 sputter, with 1200 W of RF power, in an environment of argonwith 10% oxygen and 80 sccm total gas flow, at a pressure of 20 mTorr.The resulting film thickness is 5460 Angstroms. The x-ray peak fullwidth at half maximum (“half-height width”) of the peak at 19 degrees ofthis conventional sample is 2.61 degrees. The half-height width is ameasure of the crystallite size, which can be calculated from this dataas according to known formulas. The crystallite size for thisconventionally magnetron sputtered film is 34 Angstroms. Thisconventional film must be annealed at high temperature to achievesufficient crystallite size to have adequate electrical properties suchthat the film is part of a functional and practical battery.

[0221] In other conventional film materials, like LiMn₂O₄,nanocrystalline structures have been sputtered into films and prior totheir anneal they have a crystallite size of about 40 Angstroms to about50 Angstroms. Annealing this film at a temperature of about 300 degreesCelsius produces a crystallite size of about 130 Angstroms to about 160Angstroms. In some embodiments of the present invention, thesecrystallite sizes are achieved at the time of deposition. Moreover, insome embodiments, superior crystallite sizes are achieved at the time ofdeposition.

[0222]FIG. 12B shows an X-ray diffraction spectrum for a LiCoO₂ filmfabricated according to the teachings of the present disclosure.Specifically, this film was deposited using a first source and asecondary source of energized ions as discussed above with respect tosamples “b” and “c” of FIG. 11. The peak for the ion assisted depositionfilm is significantly higher than the non-assisted spectra of FIG. 12A.This indicates a higher degree of long range order in the ion assisteddeposition film. The half-height width of the peak of the ion-assistedfilm at 19 degrees is 0.45 degrees. The crystallite size is 242Angstroms. Accordingly, the present fabrication techniques yield an asdeposited film having a crystallite size of greater than seven timesthat of the conventional deposition methods without post-depositionanneal. Moreover, the present fabrication techniques yield a superiorcrystallite size even when compared to the conventional film after ithas been annealed. The present fabrication technique yields a factor ofcrystallite size improvement of about a 1.8 to about a 2.6 over theconventional technique. Consequently, the present fabrication method canthus achieve superior crystallite size in the film as they are depositedresulting in faster, more efficient fabrication of thin-film batteries.Such an improved crystallite structure is highly desirable in thecathode film due to the limitations imposed on energy storage inthin-film batteries due to cathode film performance.

[0223] Another aspect of the present fabrication method is the abilityto fabricate thin films at essentially room temperature with acrystalline orientation that is essentially perpendicular to a boundarywith adjacent films and crystallite size. Ions must travel through theseboundaries to charge and discharge the battery. The boundaries include afirst boundary that is between the cathode film and the electrolyte filmand a second boundary that is between the electrolyte film and the anodefilm. The crystallite orientation is preferably perpendicular to theboundary planes. That is, the lithium ion lattice planes are parallel tothe lithium ion direction of travel during charging and discharging thethin-film battery. This orientation lowers the internal batteryresistance and lowers capacity loss at high discharge rates. Thecrystallite size is preferably large, e.g., over 100 Angstroms, and morepreferably over 200 Angstroms. The larger the crystallite size improveselectrical properties. Crystallite size is strongly correlated to theion diffusion coefficient, a measure of how freely lithium ions can beadded to, or extracted from the intercalation material.

[0224] While the above-described embodiments focus onlithium-intercalation materials and, more specifically, LiCoO₂, it willbe recognized that the some embodiments are adaptable to otherintercalation materials for producing energy-storage devices. Othertypes of intercalation material used in various embodiments of thepresent invention include LiMn₂O₄, V₂O₅, and carbonaceous materials,lithium, lithium alloys, oxides, and nitrides.

[0225] Using the fundamental teachings herein, i.e., the in situ assistof the growing film with appropriate energy and/or species of ionizedgasses, processes involving the manufacture of photovoltaic panels,supercapacitors/ultracapacitors, and fuel cells could be made morerobust and efficient. A corresponding cost, fabrication efficiency, andperformance advantage can be gained.

[0226] For example, Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) require themanufacturer to deposit a ceramic material on a support structure. SeeU.S. Pat. No. 6,007,683, incorporated herein by reference. This ceramicis then coated with a conductive material such as platinum, which is thecatalyst for the fuel cell. The cost of these materials and theefficiency with which they conduct the appropriate ions from one side ofthe cell to the other determines, in large measure, the cost ofmanufacture and operation of the fuel cell. The application of thetechniques described herein to a fuel cell manufacturing process wouldyield substantially higher quality catalyst with higher ionic transportcapability. Moreover, the present techniques further provide the abilityto produce a thinner catalyst by virtue of the structural properties ofmaterials deposited via the methods described herein. This allows lowertemperature operation of the fuel cell, thus, widening product latitude.

[0227] Supercapacitor/ultracapacitor performance is also enhanced by theapplication of the present techniques. See e.g., U.S. Pat. No.5,426,561, incorporated herein by reference. High energy density andhigh power density ultracapacitors and supercapacitors are improved byreduction in crystalline defects and improvement in the growth mechanismsuch that the electrolyte layer could be significantly thinned. Thisthinning improves the volumetric energy density of the device. Theimproved crystal structure enhances the voltage stability of theelectrolyte.

[0228] While some of the above embodiments include an ion source forproviding the focused energy to arriving adatoms at a surface of asubstrate to form films having fewer defects and/or certain crystalproperties, other source of the focused energy are within the scope ofsome embodiments of the present invention. Examples of such othersources include high intensity photo sources, lasers, short duration,high intensity (flash) heat sources, and short duration plasma sources.Each of these sources provides the required energy to a film and doesnot harm previously deposited layers, previously connected devices, orthe substrate. In some embodiments, these sources provide the energy tothe adatoms as they arrive at the surface on which the adatoms will forma film.

[0229] By way of introduction, one aspect of the invention deals withthe field of batteries and, more specifically, to the use of a thin filmbattery for enclosures for devices and also for devices which include anintegrated battery.

[0230]FIG. 13 is an exploded perspective view of an electronic device1000 having a separate printed circuit board 1010 and a separate battery1020. The enclosure 1000 typically includes a first portion 1001 and asecond portion 1002. The first portion 1001 may also be termed as abottom portion and typically may include pegs 1011 upon which theprinted circuit card 1010 rests. The pegs 1111 are also used to positionthe printed circuit card 1010 with respect to the bottom portion 1001 ofthe enclosure 1000. In addition, there are typically several other setsof stops 1112, which are used to position the battery 1020 with respectto the bottom portion 1001 of the enclosure 1000. The second portion1002 will include openings 1030 and 1032. The opening 1032 may be for adisplay such as an LCD or liquid crystal display (not shown in FIG. 13).The opening 1030 is typically for an access panel 1040, which fitswithin the opening 1030. The access panel 1040 provides access to thebattery 1020. The printed circuit board 1010 includes a batteryconnector 1022, which fits over the terminals of the battery 1020. Thebattery connector 1022 provides an appropriate amount of current to theelectrical components on the printed circuit board 1010. The secondportion 1002 of the enclosure 1000 includes several plastic hooks, whichare used to mate the second portion 1002 with the first portion 1001 toform the enclosure 1000. The prongs or hooks 1050 fit withincorresponding slots 1052 on the first portion 1001 of the enclosure1000.

[0231] These enclosures are typically made of plastic, and housed withinthe enclosure 1000 is a separate battery 1020 and a separate printedcircuit board 1010. These particular types of devices have severalproblems. First of all, the whole housing or enclosure, or at least aportion of it, has to be removed in order to replace a battery or inorder to recharge a battery. The batteries 1020 typically include agel-type electrolyte which can be very toxic and dangerous and, for thatreason, difficult to dispose. From a manufacturing standpoint, there isa need to assemble many parts, including the separate circuit board 1010and a battery 1020 and an LCD (not shown). These also must be accuratelyplaced within the first portion 1001 to produce a quality-lookingenclosure 1000 for the entire electrical device. Each time a separatecomponent must be placed together or into one portion or a first portionof the device requires an additional process step. In addition, matingthe second portion 1002 of the enclosure 1000 with the first portion1001 is still a further process device. From a manufacturing point, itwould be advantageous if there were less process steps involved inmanufacturing an electronic device such as the one shown. With lessmanufacturing steps, the device can be made more simply and more costeffective.

[0232] Still a further disadvantage is that the separate components,such as the separate printed circuit card 1010 and the separate battery1020, require a lot of space in terms of the enclosure. The tendencythese days is to form electronic products or electronic devices thatsave on space. In most instances, a smaller electronic device is betterthan a larger electronic device. Therefore, there is a need for aprocess that can reduce the number of process steps and save on spaceand yet produce a reliable battery and circuit for an enclosure.

[0233] The above-described method (see FIGS. 1-12) for placing a batteryonto a substrate can be used in many different ways in devices toproduce a more compact and reliable electronic package having a batterywhich is capable of being recharged a very large number of times. Thebatteries and electronics could be placed directly onto an enclosureportion therefore saving space. As a result, the design of the variouselectronic devices could be smaller than corresponding devices that arecurrently used.

[0234]FIG. 14A is an exploded perspective view of a portion of anenclosure that includes both a battery 1110, which is deposited directlyonto the enclosure portion 1100. The enclosure portion 1100 includes aninterior surface 1101 and an exterior surface 1102. In this particularembodiment, the battery 1110 is deposited onto the interior surface 1101of the enclosure portion 1100. It should be noted that the enclosureportion 1100 resembles the first portion 1101 or the bottom portion, asshown in FIG. 13. The interior 1101 of the enclosure portion 1100 alsoincludes a plurality of traces 1120 for electrically coupling thebattery 1110 to various electronic components 1130, 1131, which areattached to sites 1140 and 1141. The sites 1140 and 1141 include theelectrical contact pads for electrically connecting the electricalcomponents 1130 and 1131 to the sites 1140 and 1141. The pads associatedwith the sites 1140, 1141 are also directly deposited onto the interiorsurface 1101 of the enclosure portion 1100. Advantageously, the battery1110 can be deposited onto the interior portion 1101 of the enclosureportion 1100 as well as the traces 1120 and the pads associated with thesites 1140 and 1141. Advantageously, in order to complete an electroniccircuit, the only process steps that need to be accomplished are to addthe electronic components 1130 and 1131. In some instances it also maybe possible to produce some of the electronic components during themanufacturing steps required to place the thin film battery 1110 ontothe interior portion 1101 of the enclosure 1100. Optionally, aprotective layer 1150 may be placed over the battery 1110 or otherselect portions deposited on the interior surface 1101 of the deviceenclosure 1100. The optional protective layer is shown in phantom and isreferenced by reference numeral 1150.

[0235]FIG. 14B is an exploded perspective view of a portion 1100 of anenclosure for an electronic device according to another embodiment ofthis invention. The enclosure portion 1100 includes an interior and anexterior surface 1102. In this particular embodiment, the battery 1110is deposited on the exterior surface 1102 of the enclosure portion 1100.The battery 1110 includes a post 1160 for the cathode and another post1162 for the anode. The posts 1160 and 1162 terminate or attach tothrough holes 1161 and 1163. The through holes 1161 and 1163 provideelectrical communication to various components located inside theenclosure portion 1100. In essence, the chief difference between theembodiment shown in FIG. 14A and the embodiment shown in this FIG. 14Bis that the battery portion 1110 is deposited on the exterior surface1102 of the enclosure portion 1100. A protective coating 1150 may beplaced over the battery portion 1110 and, more specifically, over thebattery portion 1110 and the electrical posts 1160 and 1162 and thethrough holes 1161 and 1163. The protective layer 1150 may betranslucent or may be colored to match the exterior surface 1102 of theenclosure portion 1100.

[0236]FIG. 14C is an exploded perspective view of a portion of enclosure1103 for an electronic device according to yet another embodiment ofthis invention. The enclosure portion 1103 includes a battery 1110 thatis deposited on the interior surface of the enclosure portion 1103. Theenclosure portion 1103 includes an interior portion 1101 and an exteriorportion 1102. The enclosure portion 1103 corresponds to a top portionincluding a display that can be viewed by the consumer during use. Thebattery 1110 is deposited on the interior surface 1101 of the enclosureportion 1103. Also included are traces 1120 as well as electroniccomponents 1130 and 1131. Completing the circuit is an LCD or liquidcrystal display 1170. The LCD is positioned near or at an opening in theenclosure device 1103 so that the readable portion of the LCD 1170 canbe viewed from the exterior surface 1102 of the enclosure portion 1103.Enclosure portion 1103 roughly corresponds to the second enclosureportion 1102 or on top of the electronic device shown in FIG. 13.

[0237] An addition to depositing a device or a battery device or energydevice 1110 onto the surface of an enclosure, another embodiment of thisinvention is to produce a sheet including multiple cells or batteries1110. The batteries 1110 are formed on a sheet of flexible or plasticmaterial 1300. It should be noted that the size of the cells 1110 andthe placement of the cells or individual batteries 1110 can be variedfor producing various different sizes and styles of formed batteries.

[0238]FIGS. 15A through 15E disclose a method whereby the battery isformed into a conformed or conformable sheet having roughly the sameshape as either the interior or exterior surface of an electronicdevice. The conformed sheet can then be placed or adhered directly tothe interior surface or exterior surface of an electronic device. Thesheet is produced with a number or plurality of cells 1110, as will bediscussed later in this application. Once the sheet is formed asdescribed later in this application, the sheet 1300 is diced intoindividual cells or individual battery portions 1310. In other words, abattery 1110 will be formed on a dice sheet 1310 from the main sheet1300. The individually diced battery portion 1310 can then be formedinto a variety of shapes, as shown by FIGS. 15C, 15D and 15E. Theseshapes can be any desired shapes. In some embodiments or in mostembodiments, the shape of the sheet will conform or will be able to beplaced on the interior or exterior surface of an electronic device. FIG.15C, for example, shows a roughly square battery that has folded upsides or vacuum formed sides 1320. This particular device could beplaced on the interior surface of an electronic device such as a garagedoor opener or any other like device.

[0239]FIG. 15D shows a more rectangular portion or diced sheet whichresulted from a more rectangular battery laid down upon a sheet anddiced into an individual battery portion 1310. This more rectangularformation may be glued or adhered to the inner surface of an electronicenclosure for a personal data assistant. In the alternative, the formshown in FIG. 15D may also be suitable for placement on the exteriorsurface of an electronic device, such as a portable data assistant.

[0240]FIG. 15E shows a more formed device that might be found on a cellphone or similar device. FIG. 15E may be formed to fit on the interiorsurface of a cell phone or the exterior surface of a cell phone orcalculator. In other words, a diced sheet 1310 is used as a startingpoint for vacuum forming or for otherwise forming a battery that can beattached either to the interior or exterior surface of an electronicdevice. An electronic device to which it is attached can be anythingincluding hearing aides, calculators, personal data assistants, smartcards or other credit card, watches, laser pens, power tools, surgicaldevices or even catheters. The list above is not exhaustive but ismerely set forth as examples of the type of the devices that may includea battery shown and formed in FIGS. 15A through 15E.

[0241] In some instances, it may be advantageous to include a batteryhaving multiple cells 1110, 1110′ and 1110″. In this particularinstance, a dice is made 1320 that includes cells 1110, 1110′ and 1110″.The sheet can also be formed with fold lines 1321 and 1322, as shown inFIG. 15G.

[0242]FIG. 15H shows that the batteries have been folded along the foldlines to form a stack of three batteries 1110, 1110′ and 1110″. Thefolds shown in FIG. 15H are a fan fold. Once the fan fold is formed, asshown in FIG. 15H, the fan folded battery, including three cells 1330,can be formed in any desired shape, such as square-sided shape 1503 ofFIG. 15C, angle-sided shape 1504 of 15D and curve-sided shape 1505 of15E. The three-celled or multi-celled unit 1330 can be adhered to theinterior or exterior surface of any electronic device, as discussedabove. It should be noted that the fan fold can include more than threebatteries or less than three batteries. The inventive aspect is that itincludes a plurality of batteries. The cells 1110, 1110′ and 1110″ canbe attached to one another so that the cells are in series after theyare diced. Another possibility is that the electrical contacts for eachof these could be put in contact with one another as a result of fanfolding the multi-celled unit 1330.

[0243]FIGS. 15I, 15J and 15K show yet another embodiment of theinvention. In this particular embodiment of the invention, the sheet ofelectrical cells 1300 includes a plurality of cells including 1110 and1110′. The entire sheet 1300 is then vacuum formed to form more or lessan egg carton 1350 with individual battery cells 1110 and 1110′ beingformed within well 1360 and 1362 in the sheet 1300. Between the wells1360 and 1362 is a living hinge 1370. The batteries 1110 and 1110′ areat the bottom of each well 1360 and 1362, as shown in FIG. 15K. Theliving hinge 1370 is positioned between the two wells 1360 and 1362. Thefirst cell 1360 can be folded on top of the second well 1362 to form anelectronic device enclosure 1380, as shown in FIG. 15L. It should benoted that the size of the battery portions 1110 and 1110′ can belimited or placed so that other traces and room for other electronicdevices can be added so that a total circuit can be formed within a discenclosure. This provides for an advantage that wherein the electroniccomponent could be directly placed into the wells 1160 and 1162 at sitesformed at the same time as the batteries were deposited onto the sheet1300. After placing all the various electronics, the electronic devicecan be formed merely by dicing two of the wells 1360 and 1362 so thatthey form a top and bottom of the device enclosure 1380. All sorts ofelectronic devices could be included, including an LCD or other displaydevice. The LCD may be readable directly through a sheet if it istransparent or the sheet, or one of the wells 1360 and 1362, may beprovided with an opening that would correspond to an opening or face ofthe display of an LCD or other display device. Thus, the sheet and thedeposited battery thereon can ultimately become the exterior surface orthe enclosure for the device formed on the sheet. This has a greatadvantage in that the process steps necessary to form a device are orcan be quite easily and efficiently done in a continuous process. Thiswould lead to very efficient manufacturing of electronic devices.

[0244]FIG. 16A is a plan view of a sheet including a plurality of cells1110 according to this invention. FIGS. 16A, 16B and 16C show a way toform a laminated battery cell and possibly laminated battery cell andelectronics for a smart card or other invention that includes a batteryand electronics within a card. The sheet 1300 shown in FIG. 16A includescells 1110. The sheet also includes fold lines 1390 and 1392. The sheet1300 is diced into individual sections, which include fold lines 1390and 1392, as well as a battery cell site 1110. The battery cell sitemight also include electronics that are also deposited with the batteryor energy source onto the sheet 1300. The diced portion 1400 includesone portion including the cell 1100 and two blank portions 1402 and1403. The diced portion 1400 is then fan folded, as shown in FIG. 16C.Once a fan fold has been formed, the cell portion 1110 is capturedbetween the two unpopulated sheet portions 1402 and 1403 and willprovide an extra protective layer. The excess portions of the sheet 1300can be trimmed, as shown in FIG. 16D to produce a smart card or cardincluding both a battery 1110 and electronic, as shown as item 1600E inFIG. 16E.

[0245]FIG. 17 is an exploded perspective view of a diced portion of asheet 1300 which includes one battery cell 1110 rolled around anelectrical motor 1500. In this case, the diced portion, which includes acell 1110, is an elongated strip 1510 from the original sheet 1300. Theelongated strip 1510 may include several batteries placed in series orone elongated battery that is laid down as a strip on the sheet 1300.The electrical motor is electrically connected to the anode and cathodeof the battery and then rolled on to the electrical motor 1500. In thiscase, the strip 1510, on which the battery has been deposited, becomesthe case for the electrical motor or also can be viewed as being a partof the case of the electrical motor. The electrical motor can beprovided with a sprocket 1520 that is used to drive another gear 1530having a shaft 1532 attached thereto. As shown in FIG. 17, a chuck 1540is placed upon the shaft 1532 to form a drill or other power tool.Advantageously, the power tool could be light and compact, as well asbeing capable of being recharged a multiplicity of times. The power toolcould be a hand-held drill for homeowner use or a smaller device, suchas a Dremel-brand rotary hand tool.

[0246]FIGS. 18A, 18B, 18C and 18D show several other embodiments of anLED light device in which the diced portion of a sheet 1300 becomes theoutside case for the penlight or light device.

[0247]FIG. 18A is a planned view of a diced battery cell 1600 whichincludes a battery or energy device 1110 and a switch 1602 and an LED1604. The switch 1602, battery 1110 and the LED 1604 form a flashlightor LED lighting device. The sheet, including the diced battery cell andLED, is rolled across its shorter distance starting at the end includingthe LED 1604. The LED is merely rolled into the battery and the batteryis formed around the first roll to form a spiral, as shown in FIG. 18B.

[0248]FIG. 18B is a perspective view of the diced battery cell and LEDafter it has been formed into a lighting device in which the sheet 1600in which the battery is deposited becomes an outer case. The LED can beactivated by enabling the switch 1604. By enabling the switch 1604, theLED can be turned on. The sheet 1600 acts as an outer case of thelighting device formed 1620.

[0249]FIGS. 18C and 18D show another embodiment of the invention for alighting device. In this particular embodiment, again a strip 1600 isprovided with a switch 1602 and an LED 1604. In this particularembodiment, the LED is positioned so that it extends beyond the lengthof the sheet 1600. In this particular embodiment, the sheet 1600 isrolled along its longer dimension around the LED 1604 to form anelongated case having the LED 1604 at one end of the case and a switch1602 at the other end of the case. This forms a light emitting diodelight 1630 in which the sheet 1600 is part of the case.

[0250]FIGS. 19A, 19B and 19C, in some instances, is necessary to keepthe battery portions 1110 and 1110′ of a power source or energy sourceflat and not curved when it is formed.

[0251]FIG. 19A shows a sheet 1300 which includes a plurality ofindividual cells such as 1110 and 1110′ which are elongated strips andinclude fold lines, such as 1710. FIG. 19B is a plan view of a dicedstrip 1700 including a plurality of battery cells 1110, 11110′and 1110″.It should be noted that the battery cells 1110″, which are located nearone end of the strip 1700, are smaller than the battery cells formed atthe other end of the strip 1700. For example, battery cell 1110″ has avery thin width while the battery cell 1110 is roughly morerectangularly shaped. The strip 1700 is folded successively along foldlines 1710 to form a box of cells, as shown in FIG. 19C. The smallercells 1110″ are in the inside or inner core of the box while the largercells 1110 form the outer sides of the box. Each of the cells 1110,11110′and 1110″ and the cells in between those particular cells areplaced in series with one another. The end result is a cubically formedbattery cell 1720, as shown in FIG. 19C.

[0252]FIG. 20 is a cutaway side view of an enclosure portion thatincludes a sheet having a plurality of battery cells. It should be notedthat we have discussed thus far that a sheet of battery cells, such asthe one shown in FIG. 15H, can either be placed on the outside surfaceof an enclosure or on the inside surface of an enclosure or it can beformed or deposited upon an inside or outside surface of the enclosure.FIG. 20 shows that an enclosure portion 1800 having an interior surface1801 and an exterior surface 1802 can be injection molded around abattery formed on a sheet. The battery could be a single battery, as isshown in FIG. 15B, or it could be a multi-celled battery, as shown inFIG. 15H. In other words, a sheet 1820 including one or more, or atleast one battery cell 1110 formed by the above methods, could be heldwithin a mold and a suitable plastic could be injection molded about oraround the battery cell 1820. The mold could also include pins thatelectrically connect the battery 1820 to the interior surface 1801 ofthe enclosure portion 1800. The pins are shown by reference numerals1821 and 1822.

[0253]FIG. 21A is a flow chart that depicts a process for recyclingdevice enclosure portions or for recycling batteries 1110 or batterycells 1110. Because the battery cell 1110 and batteries made from anumber of these battery cells 1110 can be recharged many, many times, itis contemplated that any electronics associated with this circuit maybecome obsolete over time and, therefore, a method of recycling thebatteries is also part of this invention.

[0254] The first step, depicted by reference numeral 1900, is todetermine if the electronics within a circuit are obsolete. Electronicsare typically obsolete due to technology advances in the electronics,which may occur over a number of years. If the electronics are obsolete,then the battery 1110 or series of cells 1110 may be removed from adevice cover or enclosure portion, as depicted by reference numeral1910. The next step is to replace the old electrical components with newelectrical components, as depicted by reference numeral 1920. This firstprocess is useful for enclosure portions where the battery or number ofcells 1110 cannot be easily removed from the enclosure portion.

[0255] A second process is shown in FIG. 21B. The second process shownin FIG. 21B is useful for devices in which the battery 1110 may beremoved easily from the enclosure portion. As before, the first step,depicted by reference numeral 1930, is to determine if the electronicsare obsolete. If they are, the battery 1110 is merely removed from thecase for the enclosure portion and recycled for use in another enclosureportion having a similar contour, as depicted by reference numeral 1950.

[0256] In some embodiments, multiple cells are stacked in the originaldevice, the manufacture method would include connection tabs that arecoupled together to form the appropriate cell capacity and voltage forsome particular electronic device. Upon reaching the end of the device'slife, such battery stacks could have the tabs clipped or otherwisedisconnected from each other so that the battery stack could bedisassembled and re-assembled in a different capacity/voltageconfiguration.

Design and Fabrication of Solid-State Power Sources Cofabricated withSolid-State Integrated Circuitry

[0257]FIG. 22A shows a schematic circuit of an embodiment of a device2200 having an integrated battery 2320 and circuit 2330 sharing a commonterminal 2318. In other embodiments, more than one terminal is commonbetween battery 2320 and circuit 2330, for example, when battery 2320includes a stack having plurality of series-connected cells, and circuit2330 connects to two or more different taps in the cell stack (e.g., ifeach cell of a two-cell stack provided an open-circuit potential of 3.6volts, circuit 2330 could connect to the top of the cell stack for aportion of its circuitry needing 7.2 volts, and also to a center tap ofthe cell stack for a portion of its circuitry needing 3.6 volts, or asplit voltage battery supply could be wired to provide a groundconnection at the center tap and plus and minus 3.6 volts at the top andbottom of the stack). Common terminal 2318 connects battery 2320 tocircuit 2330, and optionally can be brought out as a connection to othercomponents. In some embodiments, common terminal connects the cathode ofbattery 2320 to circuit 2330; in other embodiments, terminal 2318connects the anode of battery 2320 to circuit 2320 as shown in FIG. 22A.In some embodiments, circuit 2330 includes one or more conductors 2317that are used to connect to other components and/or to the otherconnections to battery 2320. In some embodiments, battery 2320 includesone or more conductors 2319 that are used to connect to other componentsand/or to the other connections to circuit 2330. In other embodiments,terminal 2317 of circuit 2330 is connected directly to terminal 2319 ofbattery 2320 to form a complete device, and no connection is made toother external devices using terminals 2317, 2318, or 2319. Note thatcircuit 2330 can include any type of circuitry, for example, as shown inFIGS. 23-26, wiring traces 2332-2337, one or more active or passivedevices such as integrated circuit 2340, switches, light sources, LCDdisplays, photovoltaic cells, etc.

[0258]FIG. 22B shows a block diagram perspective view of an integrateddevice 2201 implementing circuit 2200 of FIG. 22A having the circuit2330 built on the battery 2320. According to the present invention, insome embodiments such as shown in FIG. 22B, battery 2320 is deposited orfabricated first (for example, onto a polymer substrate), and latercircuit 2330 is deposited or fabricated to a surface of battery 2320. Insome embodiments as shown in FIG. 22B, a top surface of the deviceimplementing circuit 2330 includes one or more conductors 2317 that areused to connect to other components and/or to the other connections tobattery 2320. In some embodiments, a bottom surface of battery 2320includes one or more conductors 2319 that are used to connect to othercomponents and/or to the other connections to circuit 2330. In someembodiments, a top surface of battery 2320 (the surface fabricatedadjacently to circuit 2330) is partially exposed and includes one ormore conductors 2318 that are used to connect to other components and/orto the other connections to circuit 2330. FIG. 23 and FIG. 24A show someexamples of devices 2300 and 2400 that are exemplary embodiments ofdevice 2201 of FIG. 22B.

[0259]FIG. 22C shows a block diagram perspective view of an integrateddevice 2202 implementing circuit 2200 of FIG. 22A having the battery2320 built on the circuit 2330. According to the present invention, insome embodiments such as shown in FIG. 22C, circuit 2330 is deposited orfabricated first (for example, an integrated circuit chip built onto asilicon substrate), and later battery 2320 is deposited or fabricated toa surface of battery 2320. In some embodiments as shown in FIG. 22B, atop surface of the device implementing circuit 2330 is left partiallyexposed and includes one or more conductors 2317 that are used toconnect to other components and/or to the other connections to battery2320. In some embodiments, a top surface of battery 2320 includes one ormore conductors 2319 that are used to connect to other components and/orto the other connections to circuit 2330. In some embodiments, a topsurface of circuit 2330 (the surface fabricated adjacently to circuit2330) is partially exposed and includes one or more conductors 2318 thatare used to connect to other components and/or to the other connectionsto circuit 2330. FIG. 25A and FIG. 26A show some examples of devices2500 and 2600 that are exemplary embodiments of device 2202 of FIG. 22C.

[0260]FIG. 22D shows a schematic circuit 2205 of an embodiment of anintegrated battery 2320 and circuit 2330 each having separate,electrically isolated terminals. Such embodiments are substantiallyidentical to the embodiments of FIGS. 22A, 22B, and 22C, except that aninsulator between terminal 2318 of the battery 2320 and terminal 2316 ofthe circuit 2330 keeps these electrically separate.

[0261]FIG. 22E shows a block diagram perspective view of an integrateddevice 2206 implementing circuit 2205 of FIG. 22D having the circuitbuilt on the battery. Such embodiments are substantially identical tothe embodiments of FIG. 22B except that an insulator 2331 is depositedon battery 2320 before the rest of circuit 2330 is deposited orfabricated. In some embodiments, a portion of the top surface of battery2320 is left partially exposed and includes one or more conductors 2318that are used to connect to other components and/or to the otherconnections to circuit 2330. In some embodiments, a portion of the topsurface of insulator layer 2331 is coated with a conductor and is leftpartially exposed and includes one or more conductors 2316 from circuit2330 that are used to connect to other components and/or to the otherconnections to battery 2320.

[0262]FIG. 22F shows a block diagram perspective view of an integrateddevice 2207 implementing circuit 2205 of FIG. 22D having the battery2320 built on but insulated from the circuit 2330. Such embodiments aresubstantially identical to the embodiments of FIG. 22C except that aninsulator 2331 is deposited on circuit 2330 before the rest of battery2320 is deposited or fabricated. In some embodiments, a portion of thetop surface of circuit 2330 is left partially exposed and includes twoor more conductors 2316 and 2317 that are used to connect to othercomponents and/or to the other connections to battery 2320. In someembodiments, a portion of the top surface of insulator layer 2331 iscoated with a conductor and is left partially exposed and includes oneor more conductors 2318 from battery 2320 that are used to connect toother components and/or to the other connections to circuit 2330.

[0263]FIG. 22G shows a block diagram perspective view of an integrateddevice 2203 implementing circuit 2200 of FIG. 22A having the battery2320 and the circuit 2330 built side-by-side on a substrate 2310. Insome embodiments, a pattern of conductive areas or traces is depositedon substrate 2310, and the successive layer(s) of battery 2320 andcircuit 2330 are then deposited. In some embodiments, circuit 2330consists only of these conductive traces. In other embodiments, one ormore of the process steps or deposited layers of battery 2320 andcircuit 2330 are common, and thus performed at substantially the sametime for both circuit 2330 and battery 2320, thus increasing thereliability, speed and yield of fabrication and lowering the cost offabrication. In the embodiment shown, trace 2318 is deposited onsubstrate 2310 and forms a common bottom electrical connection for bothcircuit 2330 and battery 2320. Other aspects of FIG. 22G can beunderstood by reference to FIGS. 22A-22C.

[0264]FIG. 22H shows a block diagram perspective view of an integrateddevice 2208 implementing circuit 2205 of FIG. 22D having the battery2320 and the circuit 2330 built side-by-side on a substrate 2310. Thisembodiment is substantially identical to that of FIG. 22G, except thatseparate traces are provided for signals 2316 and 2318.

[0265]FIG. 23 shows a perspective view of an embodiment 2300 of thepresent invention having a battery 2320 overlaid with circuitry. In someembodiments, substrate 2310 is a conductor such as a thin sheet ofmetal, and is overlaid with an insulator layer 2312, and then the bottomconductor layer 2322 of battery 2320. In other embodiments, insulatorlayer 2312 and bottom conductor layer 2322 are omitted, and a conductivesubstrate 2310 itself forms the bottom conductive layer for battery2320. In some embodiments, battery 2320 is a thin-film battery depositedby a process, and having a structure, as described in FIGS. 1B to 8herein. In the embodiment shown, battery 2320 includes a bottomconductive layer/electrical contact 2322 and a top conductivelayer/electrical contact 2324, and is covered by aprotective/electrically insulating layer 2331 having one or moreopenings or vias for electrical connections, for example, a via throughwhich pad/trace 2332 connects to battery 2320. In some embodiments, thetop conductor 2324 of battery 2320 is the anode connection. In theembodiment shown, the connection to the lower conductivelayer/electrical contact 2322 from pad/trace 2334 is a conductive tracedeposited over the side of battery 2320 to extended contact area 2333.In some embodiments, additional connection pads/traces 2335, 2336, and2337 are deposited, for example, using a shadow mask that defines wherethe traces will go, and a metal-evaporation source, PVD source, CVDsource, sputter source or other source to supply the conductor beinglaid down. In other embodiments, a conductive layer for circuit 2330 isdeposited over an entire upper surface, and the unneeded portions areremoved, for example, using photolithography and etching techniques. Insome embodiments, multiple layers are successively deposited, whereinthese layers include conductors, insulators, semiconductors (e.g.,polysilicon or polymer semiconductors), electrolytes, passivationlayers, mechanical-protection layers, sealants, reactants (such assensor materials that react with, e.g., smoke, carbon dioxide,antibodies, DNA, etc.) and/or decorative pattern, topography, design orcolor layers.

[0266] Some embodiments further include a separately fabricated circuit2340 that is bonded (e.g., by adhesive or solder) to the rest of thedeposited circuitry 2330, for example, a flip-chip integrated circuit2340 having bump, ball or ball-grid array connections 2341 as shown inFIG. 23. In other embodiments, packaged chips are used, e.g., J-leaded,gull-wing leaded, in-line-pin, or other plastic- or ceramic-encapsulatedchip packages.

[0267]FIG. 24A shows a perspective view of an embodiment 2400 of thepresent invention having a battery 2320 overlaid with an integrateddevice 2430. In some embodiments, integrated device 2430 is a so-calledsupercapacitor relying on either charge accumulation on opposing sideson an insulator (as in a capacitor) or ion transport across anelectrolyte (as in a battery), or both charge accumulation and iontransport to store electrical energy. In some embodiments, integrateddevice 2430 includes a photovoltaic cell of conventional constructiondeposited directly on battery 2320.

[0268] Some embodiments further include a separately fabricated circuitdevice such as an integrated circuit chip 2440 that is wire-lead bondedto device 2430 using wire 2441, to device-battery common terminal 2324using wire 2443, and to bottom battery contact 2322 using wire 2442. Forexample, in one embodiment having a supercapacitor device 2430,integrated circuit 2440 includes a wireless communication circuit thatuses the battery for overall power needs and uses supercapacitor device2430 for quick-burst power needs such as for transmitting short burst ofdata to an antenna. Other embodiments include other fabricated circuitdevices such as switches, LEDs or other light sources, LCD displays,antennas, sensors, capacitors, resistors, etc., wired to device 2400.

[0269] In one embodiment, battery 2320 includes a bottom conductor layerof platinum (e.g., 0.5 micrometers thick), a cathode of lithium cobaltoxide covered by a LiPON electrolyte and a carbon anode, and a topelectrode of platinum. On top of these depositions, device 2430 includesa layer of ruthenium oxide, an electrolyte of LiPON, another layer ofruthenium oxide and a top layer of platinum. Such a device 2430 wouldstore energy by transporting lithium ions derived from the LiPONelectrolyte from one to another of the top and bottom surface of theelectrolyte, as well as perhaps moving charge (electrons) to an opposingsurface. Such a device exhibits a higher-current discharge rate than acomparable battery, and a higher energy storage than a comparablecapacitor. The present invention including ion-assist depositionprovides for higher quality cathode films (better crystal orientation)and better electrolyte films (more complete isolation and fewer pinholedefects for any given thickness, thus allowing thinner electrolyte filmsthat increase ion transport rates), and better capacitor dielectricfilms (more complete isolation and fewer pinhole defects for any giventhickness, thus allowing thinner dielectric films that increasedielectric isolation, capacitance, and charge storage). In someembodiments, a capacitor insulator layer is made of a barium strontiumtitanate.

[0270] In some embodiments, a cathode layer of lithium-cobalt-oxide iscovered by a LiPON electrolyte layer and a lithium(0.5)-cobalt-oxideanode layer. This anode layer is non-stoichiometric deposited using asource that has excess cobalt and oxygen relative to lithium as comparedto that used for the cathode, and various embodiments use differentlithium ratios.

Design and Fabrication of Solid-State Power Sources Fabricated as aLaminate on a Rigid or Flexible Direct Energy Conversion Material suchas Photovoltaic

[0271] Virtually all electronics require energy to operate and performthe designed functions. This energy typically comes from either an ACsource such as a home wall electrical outlet or a battery mounted in thepackaging of the electronic device. More recently, advances in theconversion of heat and light into energy have fueled research in thearea of direct energy conversion (e.g., by photovoltaic cells). This hasthe potential to supply a large percentage of the world energy needs ina clean and safe manner. One problem with these methods of energy supplyhas been the cyclical nature of the energy being converted. Whether heator light, the source usually goes away for a 6- to 12-hour periodresulting in zero output from the unit. One way around this problem isto supply a battery with the unit to supply power during periods of lowlight or heat input. This is however not an ideal solution as today'srechargeable batteries are bulky and failure prone after severalcharge/discharge cycles. The present invention solves this problem byintegrating its solid-state Lithium battery directly on the energyconversion substrate. The present battery has a distinct advantage overcurrent technologies, in that it is not prone to failure or memoryproblems over tens of thousands of charge/discharge cycles, has veryhigh capacity, is lightweight, can be fabricated on nearly any substrateand is cheap to manufacture. The resultant product is a reliable,portable power source with steady output over extended periods or rainor shine, night or day, warm or cold.

[0272] According to the present invention, solid-state processes areused to cofabricate direct energy conversion materials and energystorage on the same substrate. This is possible by using thelow-temperature processes for solid-state batteries described above.

[0273]FIG. 24B shows a block diagram of a battery-layer-depositionsystem 2460. In some embodiments, system 2460 includes a supply reel2461, a deposition chamber 2462 that deposits one or more layers ofbattery 2320 onto a substrate 2410 as described above, and a takeup reel2463. Typically, deposition chamber 2462 is a vacuum chamber thatencloses supply reel 2461 and takeup reel 2463, and successivelydeposits a plurality of layers, wherein each of one or more of thelayers is immediately treated (e.g., by ion assist, laser surfaceanneal, heat surface anneal, or kinetic treatment), according to thepresent invention, to impart a high-quality surface structure to thatlayer or those layers before subsequent layers are deposited, andwithout substantial heating of the underlying layer(s) or substrate. Forlayers that need to be thicker, a longer deposition station is providedthan the station for thinner layers. In some embodiments, the lowercontact layer 2322 is deposited onto a starting substrate film, fabric,or foil 2410, then the cathode, electrolyte, anode, and anode-contactlayers are deposited, wherein the cathode layer and/or the electrolytelayer are treated (e.g., by an ion-assist beam) before subsequent layersare deposited.

[0274]FIG. 24C shows the resulting item 2464, which is a continuoussheet of substrate material 2410 having batteries 2320 deposited on it.This partially built item 2464 is then used as the supply reel 2466 oflayer-deposition system 2465 of FIG. 24D.

[0275]FIG. 24D shows a block diagram of aenergy-conversion-layer-deposition system 2465. In some embodiments,system 2565 deposits layers that form a photovoltaic cell 2430 ontobattery 2320 of FIG. 24A. In some embodiments, system 2460 and system2465 are merged into a single system having a single supply reel 2461and a single takeup reel 2468, and having layers of the battery 2320 andof the photovoltaic cell 2430 successively deposited. In otherembodiments, other types of devices 2430 are deposited such ascapacitors, antennae, circuitry, transducers, sensors, magneto-resistors(e.g., of the giant magneto-resistor type), etc.

[0276]FIG. 24E shows a perspective view of a processed sheet 2469 thatis the result of processing by system 2460 and system 2465. Sheet 2469is then cut or diced into individual devices 2400. FIG. 24F shows aperspective view of three diced final devices 2400. In otherembodiments, sheet 2469 is cut into any desired number of devices 2400.

[0277] In other embodiments, system 2460 and system 2465 deposit abattery 2320 and a photovoltaic cell 2330 side-by-side on one face ofsubstrate 2310, such as shown in FIG. 22G and FIG. 22H. In some suchembodiments, one or more of the layers deposited for battery 2320 arealso deposited for photovoltaic cell 2330 simultaneously of the samedeposition material, thus saving process steps but making a wider devicethan if stacked as in FIG. 24A.

[0278]FIG. 25A shows a perspective view of an embodiment 2500 of thepresent invention having an integrated circuit 2510 overlaid with abattery 2320. In some embodiments, integrated circuit 2510 includes atop insulator layer 2511 having a plurality of vias or openings 2512 tothe active surface of the integrated circuit 2510 (the side with devicesand connectors). Two of these vias are used as contacts 2514 and 2515between integrated circuit 2510 and battery 2320. Battery 2320 isdeposited as described for FIG. 23. In some embodiments, battery 2320 isdeposited on an integrated circuit wafer before integrated circuit 2510is diced apart from the other integrated circuits. In some embodiments,battery 2320 is deposited onto integrated circuit 2510 after integratedcircuit 2510 is diced apart from the other integrated circuits. Someembodiments further include a passivation layer over the top an d sidesof battery 2320 such as layer 2331 of FIG. 23.

[0279] In other embodiments, a circuit such as circuit 2330 of FIG. 23is used in place of integrated circuit 2510 of FIG. 25A. Thus, a patternof vias and/or other devices or circuitry is deposited on a substrate,and battery 2320 is deposited on the top of the predefinedcircuitry/substrate, as in FIG. 25A. In some embodiments, a photovoltaiccell is used as such a circuit device/substrate, and battery 2320 isdeposited directly on the premanufactured photovoltaic cell. In someembodiments, an integrated circuit such as 2440 of FIG. 24A is wired tothe battery 2320 and the premanufactured photovoltaic cell to controlcharging of the battery from the cell and/or to control using power forother devices (such as a light source or hearing aid) from the photocellduring periods of high amounts of light and power available from thephotovoltaic cell, and using power from the battery during periods oflittle or no light and power available from the photovoltaic cell.

[0280] Virtually all electronics require energy to operate and performthe designed functions. This energy typically comes from either an ACsource such as a home wall electrical outlet or a battery mounted in thepackaging of the electronic device. Until the last few years, thisapproach has proved to be acceptable even though the inefficienciescaused waste of both energy and natural resources in that the devicehousing had to be made large enough to incorporate the energy package orconversion electronics. As electronic complexity increases, the wastedreal estate and energy begin to become an issue as the demands ofoperator interface begin to compete with the energy source for area onthe device. The application of the solid-state battery process of thepresent invention allows the cofabricating of electronics and theassociated power source together on chip.

[0281] Solid-state processes are used to cofabricate electronics andsolid-state rechargeable battery on a common substrate such as siliconused for IC processing. This is possible by using the low-temperatureprocesses for solid-state batteries described above.

[0282] Referring to FIG. 25A, in some embodiments, the integratedcircuit (IC) 2510 in wafer form is processed normally through finalpassivation including bond-pad etch. All thermal processing necessaryfor the electronics is performed conventionally. The IC in wafer form issent to backend energy processing. In some embodiments, the design ofthe IC includes electronics for control of recharge for the solid-stateenergy source; contact vias for connecting the cathode plate and anodeplate to the circuit. Using shadow masks with sufficient overlayaccuracy, the necessary components of the energy structure 2320 aredeposited using PVD or. CVD as described above. A final passivationcoating (such as 2331 of FIG. 23) is applied to the energy stack. The ICin wafer form with energy source integrated is sent for test, dicing andpackaging. This provides integration of electronics and solid-staterechargeable batteries by cofabrication.

Design and Fabrication of Solid-State Power Sources Fabricated as aLaminate on the Packaging for the Device to which the Energy Source willProvide Power

[0283] Solid-state processes are used to cofabricate electronics andpackaging. This is possible by using the low-temperature processes forsolid-state batteries described above.

[0284]FIGS. 25B-25E show a fabrication sequence for cofabrication ofsolid-state integrated circuits and solid-state energy source such asthat described above, but onto a packaged IC 2540. FIG. 25B shows a planview and FIG. 25C shows an elevational view of IC 2540. In someembodiments, IC 2540 includes a silicon chip 2545 having integratedcomponents such as transistors, resistors, memory, etc., a lowersubstrate 2546, and a wiring superstrate 2544 having deposited wires2543 that extend to bonding vias 2542. FIG. 25D shows a plan view andFIG. 25E shows an elevational view of an integrated battery-IC 2501.Battery-IC 2501 includes a cathode 2326 (e.g., lithium cobalt oxide),electrolyte layer 2327 (e.g., LiPON), and anode layer 2328 (e.g.,including copper, carbon, lithium, lithium-magnesium, and/or othersuitable anode material). Passivation overcoat layer 2329 suitable toprotect the inner components of battery 2320 is then deposited or grown.

[0285] In one embodiment, the packaged IC 2540 product is formed byconventional means. All machine work and cleaning is accomplished. Thepackage 2540 is sent to energy processing for deposition of battery 2320or other energy-storage device. The design of the package included asuitable area 2549 for deposition of battery components. Using shadowmasks with sufficient overlay accuracy, the necessary components of theenergy structure (e.g., a battery and/or photovoltaic cell) aredeposited using the methods described above. A final passivation coating2329 is applied to the energy stack structure. The package with energystructure integrated is sent for assembly.

[0286] In one embodiment, further electronics are attached to thepackage/energy entity 2501 by way of adhesive. The electronics are thenhardwired to the package/energy entity. In a second embodiment, theelectronics are mounted directly to the package/energy entity by 2501way of solder bumps. In some embodiments, the entire assembly isoptionally potted, then sealed by the package cover. In otherembodiments, the battery is formed on a substrate suitable as apackaging material. The substrate is formed into individual package formfactors. The package with energy structure integrated is sent forassembly.

[0287] Thus, the present invention provides integrated product packagingand solid-state rechargeable batteries by cofabrication where thebattery is deposited on the already-formed package. The presentinvention also provides integrated product packaging and solid-staterechargeable batteries by cofabrication where the battery is depositedon a suitable package material, then formed into the package.

[0288] The present invention also provides a method of attachingelectronics to a package/energy hybrid wherein the electronics aremounted with adhesive, then hardwired to the energy source. The presentinvention further provides a method of attaching electronics to apackage/energy hybrid wherein the electronics are attached to the energysource via solder bumps.

[0289]FIG. 25F shows a block diagram of a layer-deposition system 2560much the same as that of FIG. 24B, however rather than using a sheet ofpolymer or other homogenous substrate material 2410, system 2560 startswith a sheet 2561 having a plurality of processed packaged ICs 2540 thatare received by takeup reel 2563.

[0290]FIG. 25G shows a perspective view of a processed sheet 2569. Sheet2569 includes a plurality of preprocessed circuits 2540 each having abattery 2320 deposited on it by system 2560. Sheet 2569 is then cut ordiced into individual devices 2501.

[0291]FIG. 26A shows a perspective view of a device 2600 of the presentinvention having an integrated circuit 2510 overlaid on its back with abattery 2320. This embodiment is similar to that of FIG. 25A, exceptthat the battery 2320 is deposited on the back of IC 2510, and iswire-lead bonded to contact 2514 using wire 2614 from battery contact2519 and to contact 2515 using wire 2615 from battery contact 2518.

[0292] In some embodiments, device 2600 further includes device 2650such as a photovoltaic cell fabricated on a surface of integratedcircuit 2510, for example, on the opposite side as that facing battery2320. In some embodiments, such a photovoltaic cell 2650 provides powerto IC 2510 for both operation of IC 2510 and for charging of battery2320 during periods of relatively bright light, and then battery 2320provides power to IC 2510 for operation during periods of relatively dimor no light. In some embodiments, device 2600 includes one or moredevices 2650 such as sound transducers for such applications as ahearing aid having a combined transducer-battery-amplifier device. Insome such embodiments, both a photovoltaic cell 2650 and one or moresound transducers 2650 are deposited in order to provide alight-rechargeable hearing aid which could be taken out of the ear atnight and placed in a light-emitting recharging stand (e.g., that ofFIG. 27L), avoiding the need to replace batteries or even toelectrically connect to an external recharging circuit. In someembodiments, a photovoltaic cell and/or a sound transducer is/aredeposited on one face of device 2600 for recharging and for soundpickup, and a sound transducer is deposited on an opposing face for useas s speaker for applications such as a hearing aid.

[0293] In yet other embodiments, 2600 further includes device 2650 suchas a magnetoresistive sensor fabricated on a surface of integratedcircuit 2510, for example, on the opposite side as that facing battery2320. Such a device 2600 could be used in a compass, for example.

[0294] In some embodiments, embodiment 2600 further includes an antennaor electromagnetic radiation receiving loop 2662 fabricated on a surfaceof integrated circuit 2510, for example, on the opposite side as thatfacing battery 2320. In some such embodiments, device 2600 also includesone or more devices 2650 such as sound transducers for such applicationsas a hearing aid having an combined transducer-battery-amplifier devicein order to provide a radio frequency-wave-rechargeable hearing aidwhich could be taken out of the ear at night and placed in anRF-emitting recharging stand (e.g., that of FIG. 27M), avoiding the needto replace batteries or even to electrically connect to an externalrecharging circuit.

[0295] In various embodiments, such an antenna or electromagneticradiation receiving loop 2662 is fabricated on device 2202, 2203, 2204,2206, 2207, 2208, 2300, 2400, or 2500 (or 2700 described below) or otherbattery devices described herein. In some such embodiments,electromagnetic radiation received wirelessly by antenna 2662 can besuch low-frequency radiation as 50- or 60-hertz magnetic radiation froma coil connected to house current (e.g., that of FIG. 27L). In othersuch embodiments, RF radiation such as radio, TV, cellular, etc. havingfrequencies up to and exceeding 2.4 GHz is received. In someembodiments, multiple antennae are used, e.g., one for transducingcommunications signals and another for receiving recharging signals.

[0296]FIG. 26B shows a block diagram of a layer-deposition system 2660.System 2660 is much the same as system 2560 of FIG. 25B, except that thebattery material is deposited on the back of the sheet, i.e., on theside opposite the active parts or connections of circuit 2510.

[0297]FIG. 26C shows a perspective view of a processed sheet 2669. Sheet2669 includes a plurality of devices or circuits 2510 each having abattery 2320 on the back. FIG. 26D shows a perspective view of dicedfinal devices 2600 after being dices or cut apart. FIG. 26E shows aperspective view of wired diced final device 2600 after being wired,e.g., by wires 2615 and 2616 as shown, or by deposited traces (notshown) that extend electrical connections from the top to the bottom ofdevice 2600.

[0298] In some embodiments, a roll of flexible fabric 2661 suitable foruse as a substrate for direct energy conversion has deposited on it thenecessary elements and/or layers to form the desired unit (such as aphotovoltaic cell) using roll-to-roll concepts. The roll is then takento the energy deposition tool 2660 which is also configured to operatein a roll-to-roll mode. The battery 2320 is fabricated on the backside(the side opposite the active side of the device, e.g., the side havingthe light-reception face of a photovoltaic cell) of the roll. Electricalconnection is made after fabrication using hardwire techniques, such asshown in FIG. 26E.

[0299] In other embodiments such as shown in FIGS. 24B-24F, a roll offlexible fabric 2461 suitable for use as a substrate for direct energyconversion (e.g., for a photovoltaic cell) is deposited with materialsto form a solid-state lithium battery using roll-to-roll concepts insystem 2460. The resulting roll 2463 is then taken to the direct energyconversion materials deposition tool 2465 which is also configured tooperate in a roll-to-roll mode. The direct energy conversion material2430 is deposited directly on the solid-state battery 2320. In someembodiments, electrical connection is made through vias formed duringbattery and device fabrication such as shown in FIG. 23.

[0300] In yet other embodiments, roll 2461 above is replaced by adifferent substrate, such as wafer 2961 of FIG. 29A described below,also suitable for use in direct energy conversion. The fabrication tools2960 and 2965 are also configured to handle the new substrate formfactor such as square plates or round wafers.

[0301] In still other embodiments, roll 2661 above is replaced by adifferent substrate, such as wafer 2971 of FIG. 29E below, also suitablefor use in direct energy conversion. The fabrication tools 2960 and 2965are also configured to handle the new substrate form factor such assquare plates or round wafers.

[0302] Thus, the present invention provides a method for integratingsolid-state lithium batteries with direct energy conversion materials ona flexible fabric. Further, the present invention provides a method forintegrating solid-state lithium batteries with direct energy conversionmaterials on a rigid substrate.

[0303]FIG. 26F shows a perspective view of a hearing aid 2690incorporating a wired diced final device 2600. In some embodiments,device 2600 includes a photovoltaic cell 2650 for recharging battery2320 the operates hearing aid 2690. In some embodiments, soundtransducers of conventional materials such as piezoelectric materialsare deposited as layers by system 2660 to be used as the microphone andspeaker of hearing aid 2690.

[0304]FIG. 27A shows a plan view of a starting substrate 2710 of anembodiment that will have an integrated battery and device sharing acommon terminal. FIG. 27F shows an elevation view of the startingsubstrate of FIG. 27A. FIG. 27B shows a plan view of the substrate 2710of FIG. 27A after deposition of the integrated battery 2320 and device2430 sharing a common terminal. In some embodiments, integrated battery2320 and device 2430 are a thin-film battery and supercapacitor havingelectrical connections 2322, 2324, and 2431 such as shown and describedin FIG. 24A above. FIG. 27G shows an elevation view of the partiallybuilt device of FIG. 27B. FIG. 27C shows a plan view of the substrate ofFIG. 27B after placing and wiring a separately fabricated chip 2440connected by wires 2441, 2442, and 2443 to the integrated battery 2320and device 2430 sharing common terminal 2324. FIG. 27H shows anelevation view of the partially built device of FIG. 27C. FIG. 27D showsa plan view of the substrate 2710 of FIG. 27C after placing and wiring aloop antenna 2750. FIG. 27I shows an elevation view of the partiallybuilt device of FIG. 27D. FIG. 27E shows a plan view of the final device2700 having the partially built device of FIG. 27D after a topencapsulation layer 2760 has been deposited. FIG. 27J shows across-section elevation view of the device 2700 of FIG. 27E. Theelevational views of FIGS. 27E-27J are not to scale. In someembodiments, device 2700 is approximately the size and thickness of acommon credit card. In some embodiments, a magnetic strip 2770 andraised lettering 2780 are also fabricated on device 2700.

[0305]FIG. 27K shows a perspective view of the device of FIG. 27E at amagnetic-recharging station. In the embodiment shown, coil 2790 useshouse current to generate a 60 Hz magnetic field, and together with coil2750, form a transformer inducing current flow in coil 2750, which isrectified and used to recharge battery 2320.

[0306]FIG. 27L shows a perspective view of a device 2700 of FIG. 27E,but further including a photovoltaic cell 2650, at a light-rechargingstation that includes lamp 2791. In some embodiments, device 2700 isfabricated in a shape to fit in the ear, includes sound transducers, andfunctions as a hearing aid that can be recharged an indefinite number oftimes, eliminating the need to replace its battery.

[0307]FIG. 27M shows a schematic of the device of FIG. 27E at aradio-wave-recharging station 2792. Radio waves fromradio-wave-recharging station 2792 are picked up by antenna 2750, andthe received radio wave's power is scavenged to recharge battery 2320using a conventional recharging circuit, e.g., implemented in circuit2440.

[0308] Solid-state rechargeable batteries such as those described abovehave the unique ability of being integrated directly with theelectronics they will power. Further integration of thin-wireantenna/coil 2662 or 2750 to be used as one of the coils of a two-parttransformer such as shown in FIG. 27K and/or RF-scavenging technologysuch as that used in keyless entry systems allows the recharging of thesolid-state thin-film battery 2320 wirelessly (through the air). Usingtechniques already common in RF I.D. tagging, the communicated energy isconverted into a D.C. voltage and used to perform functions on board. Inthe case where a battery already exists on board, the D.C. voltage isused to power up recharge circuitry to wirelessly recharge the on-boardbattery.

[0309] Certain needs exist within industry that would benefit from theintegration of energy, storage communication and electronics on a singleplatform. One example is control of warehouse inventories where a small“credit card” is attached to an item in the warehouse. On board the“credit card” is an antenna, supercapacitor, solid-state battery and allrequired electronics. When the controller needs to know something aboutthe package, the warehouse is queried via cellular or other wirelessmeans with the I.D. of the package in question. The query “wakes up” thepackage and entices it to respond with whatever data is programmed to bereleased. The supercapacitor discharges into the antennae-drivingcircuitry bursting the data out to the central computer. At the sametime, the electronics on the credit-card form factor device perform aself evaluation to see if any anomalies have or are occurring such as“battery needs charging.” If the answer is yes, the central computersends a signal of appropriate length to recharge the on-board batteryusing technology described herein.

[0310] Another application seeing significant enhancement from theintegration of energy, communication and electronics on a singleplatform is an implantable device such as a pacemaker. This technologyallows a battery having a very large number (if not infinite)charge/discharge cycles to be implanted as part of a pacemaker. When a“battery-low condition” is encountered, the battery is remotelyrecharged through the body using AC magnetic fields, sound orultrasound, radio-frequency or other energy sources.

[0311] Solid-state processes are used to integrate electronics,solid-state rechargeable battery, and antenna on a single platform suchas a “credit card” form factor. This is possible by using thelow-temperature processes for solid-state batteries and supercapacitorsdescribed.

[0312] The present invention provides a platform integratingelectronics, solid-state rechargeable batteries, and antenna on a singleplatform such as a credit card or implantable device allowing remotewireless recharging of the on-board battery.

[0313]FIGS. 27A-27J show a fabrication sequence if some embodiments ofan example of a credit-card form-factor I.D. tag with remote rechargecapability.

[0314]FIG. 31B shows a fabrication sequence for an example of animplantable device such as a pacemaker 3101. This method starts with asubstantially flat sheet deposited with batteries, which is then cutapart and formed into a three-dimensional shape. The method is otherwisesimilar to that of FIG. 31C.

[0315]FIG. 31C shows one method for making a pacemaker 3102. The methodincludes a plurality of steps carrying the reference numbers 3194, 3195,3196 and 3197. The pacemaker 3102 includes a first half 3131 and asecond half 3130. In the initial step, 3194, the second half 3130 isprovided. A battery cell 1110 is formed on an interior surface of thepacemaker 3102, as shown by step 3195. The single cell 1110 is depositedon the interior surface, as shown by step 3195. The electronics 3150 arethen placed onto the battery 1110 to form a circuit with the battery1110, as depicted by step 3196. The first half 3131 of the enclosure isplaced over the second half 3130 to form the assembled pacemaker 3102,as depicted by step 3197.

[0316] Solid-state rechargeable batteries such as those described abovehave the unique ability of being integrated directly with theelectronics they will power. Further integration of thin-wire antennaand an energy burst device such as a supercapacitor would allow thedevice to communicate over large distances via any possible number ofcurrent communication methods including but not limited to cellular.

[0317] This invention relates to solid-state rechargeable batteries andthe integration of such with wireless communication (antennae andelectronics), supercapacitor and conventional electronics on a singleplatform.

[0318] Certain needs exist within industry that would benefit from theintegration of energy, communication and electronics on a singleplatform. One example is control of warehouse inventories where a small“credit card” is attached to an item in the warehouse. On board the“credit card” are an antenna, supercapacitor, solid-state battery andall required electronics. This “credit card” allows tracking oflocation, time at location, description of item in question and/orinformation on the environment. When the controller needs to knowsomething about the package, the warehouse is queried via cellular orother wireless means with the I.D. of the package in question. The query“wakes up” the package and entices it to respond with whatever data isprogrammed to be released. The supercapacitor discharges into thecircuitry driving the antennae bursting the data out to the centralcomputer. At the same time, the electronics on the “credit card”performs a self evaluation to see if any anomalies have or are occurringsuch as battery needs charging. If the answer is yes, the centralcomputer could send a signal of appropriate length to allow recharge ofon-board battery using technology described above.

[0319] Solid-state processes are used to integrate electronics,solid-state rechargeable battery, supercapacitor and antenna on a singleplatform such as a “credit card” form factor. This is possible by usingthe low-temperature processes for solid-state batteries andsupercapacitors described above.

[0320] Thus, the present invention provides for integrating electronics,solid-state rechargeable batteries, supercapacitors and antenna on asingle platform such as a credit card or implantable device.

Method of Recycling and Re-Using Solid-State Lithium-Ion Batteries

[0321]FIG. 28A shows an elevation view of a battery 2800 having stackedcells 2801. Each cell includes an anode tab 2802 and a cathode tab 2803,wherein all of the anode tabs 2802 are soldered together, and all of thecathode tabs 2803 are soldered together. Optionally, battery 2800 isencapsulated with a potting material.

[0322]FIG. 28B shows a plan view of a single battery cell 2801 afterrecycling. In some embodiments, the anode tab 2802 and the cathode tab2803 are “tinned” (covered with fresh solder) and/or solder bumped tofacilitate reassembly soldering operations.

[0323]FIG. 28C shows a process 2810 used for recycling. Process 2810includes providing batteries 2800 to be recycled into input bin 2820. Insome embodiments, the batteries are de-potted at de-pot station 2822,de-soldered at de-solder station 2824, tested at test station 2826, andoutputted into sorted output bins 2828 based on the testing results.

[0324] Of the 2 billion rechargeable batteries consumed in the UnitedStates in 1998, only about 300 million were actually recycled. Thatmeans about 1.7 billion recyclable batteries made it into landfills.Although more and more of these batteries are technicallyenvironmentally safe, this still represents a significant load on thelandfill situation in the USA. The present invention provides a solutionthat will have its greatest impact as solid-state lithium-ion batteriesbegin to dominate the rechargeable battery market. In this invention,solid-state lithium-ion batteries have a date code and/or recycle valueassociated with them. Because of the very large (over 40,000) number ofcharge/discharge cycles possible with solid-state lithium batteries, theaverage expected life of a cell could exceed 100 years. It is thereforevery likely that the product in which the cell is placed will lose itsusefulness well before the battery cell is depleted. Thus, when thebattery reaches the end of its useful life based on the obsolescence ofthe product it was in, the consumer will be enticed to recycle thebattery based on the value returned to the consumer in exchange forrecycling. This value could be a function of the date code andapplication the battery was used in. The recycler 2810 then disassemblesthe unit 2800, tests the single cells 2801, then rebuilds the cells inwhatever configuration is most in demand at that time. The rebuilt unitcould then be sold at an appropriate cost and warranty on performance.

[0325] This invention relates to recycling of rechargeable batteries,specifically the recycling of batteries that are manufactured in such away so as to allow the disassembly of the individual battery cells uponrecycling.

[0326] For years the automotive industry has recycled certain high-costcomponents of the automobile. Using this philosophy, the presentinvention applies those principles to the recycling of rechargeablebatteries. As battery technology advances, the batteries are actuallyoutlasting the products they were designed for. The conventionalsolution is to depend on the consumer to recycle the no-longer usefulbattery by taking it to some place that will accept the battery. Thedata suggests that this is wishful thinking, as fully 80% of Americansdo not recycle their rechargeable batteries. Rather, they throw theminto the garbage and the battery ends up in a landfill. Although thenewer battery chemistries are relatively benign to the environment, thesheer bulk of the disposed batteries can represent an enormous strain onlandfills. This invention allows enticement of the consumer to recyclethe batteries by offering a cash reward, or other inducement such asreduced cost on new batteries, in exchange for recycling. Since money isinvolved, this program should be able to be implemented on a wide scalemaking participation likely.

[0327] In one embodiment, rechargeable battery manufacturers areencouraged to manufacture their products in such a way that uponrecycling, the battery can be broken down into individual cells andthese cells rebuilt into “new” batteries. In some embodiments of thepresent invention provide such a recycling program, and providebatteries with features to facilitate recycling, for example, markingone or more of the cells of a battery with a code indicating suchinformation as date of manufacture, voltage, capacity, value,composition physical size, and/or weight. An example is a cell-phonebattery having a capacity of 1000 mAh (milliampere hours). Someembodiments involve the parallel assembly of approximately 10 individualcells into a battery pack that would have a capacity of 1000 mAh. Theseindividual cells are fabricated on a grid that provides bonding tabsallowing the configuration of the cells in a variety of modes. Uponrecycling, the batteries are de-potted, de-soldered and analyzed forrobustness. Cells having data codes and test results indicatingsubstantial life remaining would be repackaged according to marketneeds. In some embodiments, recycling rechargeable batteries involvesthe breaking down of the battery pack into individual cells which aretested and re-assembled into usable battery packs. Some embodimentsinclude a method of determining the viability of recycled battery cellsfor use in rebuilt batteries such as measuring the charge-dischargevoltage-current curve over one or more cycles. Some embodiments includea method of de-potting batteries such that the individual cells areaccessible and not damaged, such as using a plastic potting compoundthat can later be dissolved using a solvent and/or heat that does notdeteriorate the battery. Some embodiments include a method ofdisconnecting cells from the original battery pack and re-connectinginto a new configuration, such as having solder tabs that extend beyondthe battery pack so that the solder tabs can be desoldered withoutsubstantially heating the battery itself. Some embodiments include arecycling system based loosely on the system used by the automotiveindustry in rebuilding of starters, alternators etc. and the techniquesused by lead acid battery outlets.

[0328]FIG. 29A shows a block diagram of a layer-deposition system 2960.System 2960 has layer deposition sections 2962 much the same as those ofsystem 2460 of FIG. 24B, except that it is set up to deposit layers ontowafers 2961 (or onto diced ICs 2510 rather than onto flexiblesubstrates), resulting in processed wafers 2963. FIG. 29B shows aperspective view of a partially processed wafer 2964 having batterymaterial 2320 on wafer 2961 or IC 2410.

[0329]FIG. 29C shows a block diagram of a layer-deposition system 2965.System 2965 has layer deposition sections 2962 much the same as those ofsystem 2465 of FIG. 24D, except that it is set up to deposit layers ontowafers 2966 (or onto diced ICs 2510 rather than onto flexiblesubstrates) by layer-deposition sections 2967, resulting in processedwafers 2968. FIG. 29D shows a perspective view of a processed sheet 2969having battery material 2320 on wafer 2961 or IC 2410 and covered by adevice 2430 such as a photovoltaic cell.

[0330]FIG. 29E shows a block diagram of a layer-deposition system 2965.In some such embodiments, system 2965 deposits layers forming aphotovoltaic cell device 2650 onto a wafer 2971 or IC 2510. FIG. 29Fshows a perspective view of a partially processed wafer 2974. FIG. 29Gshows a block diagram of a layer-deposition system 2960. In some suchembodiments, system 2960 deposits layers of a battery 2320. FIG. 29Hshows a perspective view of a processed wafer 2979. In some embodiments,wafer 2979 represents a single device, and in other embodiments, wafer2979 is diced or cut into a plurality of individual devices and thenwired as necessary to connect the signals on the top of the device tothe bottom of the device. FIG. 29I shows a perspective view of wireddiced final device 2600 having wires 2914 and 2915.

[0331] Turning now to FIGS. 30, 31 and 32, specific examples of deviceswill now be provided. FIG. 30 shows an implantable device 3000 used tostimulate specific portions of the brain. One use of such device 3000 isfor deep brain neural stimulation, for example, in order to treatParkinson's Disease. By sending signals to a specific portion of thebrain the tremors associated with Parkinson's Disease may be reduced. Inthe past, a lead or conductor was implanted in the brain so thatelectrical signals may be sent to the specific area of the brain forreducing tremors. The lead passes under the skull and through the neckto a pocket near the patient's chest in current versions. As shown inFIG. 30, after a burr hole has been made in the skull, a port 3010 isplaced in the burr hole. The port 3010 includes a cap 3012, which isused to hold the lead in place during implantation as well as afterimplantation. In this particular invention, the cap 3012 is made of asuitable biocompatible material. Imbedded within the cap is a batterycell 1110 or a series of battery cells 1110. The electronics necessaryto deliver the signals at a desired rate or programmable rate is alsoimbedded within the cap 3012. An RF antenna 3014 is also placed withinthe cap so that the battery 1110 imbedded within the cap 3012 can berecharged by passing radio frequency into the cap or inductivelycoupling the required energy into the cap. Another embodiment may usethe lead 3020 for an energizing antenna and may include a separateantenna for programming the electronics used to deliver signals to thebrain.

[0332]FIG. 31A is directed toward a pacemaker 3100. Rather than includeseparate batteries within the case of the pacemaker 3100, the enclosure,or at least one enclosure portion, includes a battery 1110 or a seriesof cells 1110. The pacemaker 3100 may include an antenna 3120 which isused to direct radio frequency toward the pacemaker for recharging ofthe battery 1110 that is positioned within the case or enclosure of thepacemaker 3100.

[0333]FIG. 31B shows the method for making the pacemaker 3101. Themethod is comprised of a plurality of steps carrying the referencenumbers 3190, 3191, 3192 and 3193. The pacemaker 3100 includes a firsthalf 3131 and a second half 3130. A plurality of battery cells 1110 areformed on a substrate material 3140, as shown by step 3190. Thesubstrate material 3140 is diced or cut resulting in a single cell 1110on the sheet as diced. The single cell 1110 is adhesively bonded to thesecond half 3130 of the pacemaker 3100, as shown in step 3191. Theelectronics 3150 are then placed onto the battery 1110 to form a circuitwith the battery 1110, as depicted by step 3192. The first half 3131 ofthe enclosure is placed over the second half 3130 to form the assembledpacemaker 3100.

[0334]FIG. 32A is a perspective cutaway view of a watch 3200. The watchincludes a case 3210 and a band 3212 for strapping onto a person'swrist. Within the case 3210 is a solar cell 3220 and an LCD 3222. Thesolar cell 3220 is attached to the battery or series of battery cells1110. The LCD 3222 is attached to the battery and electronic (notshown). The battery powers the LCD 3222 and is associated to electronicsassociated with the watch 3200. The solar cell 3220 recharges thebattery 1110 more or less continuously. Both the solar cell 3220 and theLCD 3222 appear at the crystal or glass portion of the watch.Advantageously, this type of watch can be sealed forever so that it canbe made absolutely watertight.

[0335] Another embodiment of a watch is shown in FIG. 32B. In thisparticular instance, a circular-shaped solar cell 3240 is positionedatop a circular-shaped battery cell 1110. The circular-shaped solar cellincludes an opening 3241 therein. A set of hands for an analog watch maybe inserted through the opening. The crystal or glass face of the watchwill then be opened to the solar cell 3240 so that it can continuouslycharge the battery 1110, which in turn powers the working portion of thewatch.

CONCLUSION

[0336] A method for making a thin-film device includes providing asubstrate having a major surface area and a first layer on a firstsurface on the major surface area. A second layer is deposited onto thefirst layer. Depositing of the second layer includes energizing thesecond layer without substantially heating the substrate. In oneembodiment, the first and second layers are part of a battery. Themethod further includes depositing a photovoltaic cell on the battery,attaching an integrated circuit to the substrate, and operativelycoupling the integrated circuit to charge the battery using current fromthe photovoltaic cell. In one embodiment, the first and second layersare deposited on the substrate while the substrate moves in a continuousmotion. The substrate is a flexible material supplied from a roll. Thefirst and second layers are deposited on the substrate while thesubstrate moves in a continuous motion. In another embodiment, the firstand second layers form a cathode layer of a battery. The batteryincludes the cathode layer; an anode layer, and an electrolyte layerlocated between and electrically isolating the anode layer from thecathode layer. The anode or the cathode or both include an intercalationmaterial. An electrical circuit may also be deposited on the battery. Inanother embodiment, the substrate is a rigid material supplied from acassette. The first and second layers are deposited on the substratewhile the substrate moves in a continuous motion. The substrate may be apolymer material having a melting point below about 700 degrees Celsius.Energizing the second layer includes supplying ions of at least 5 eV.

[0337] A system for making a thin-film device includes asubstrate-supply station and a deposition station. The substrate-supplystation supplies a substrate having a major surface area and having afirst layer on a first surface area of the substrate's major surfacearea. The deposition station deposits a second layer onto the firstlayer. The deposition station supplies energy to the second layer to aidin layer formation without substantially heating the substrate. Thefirst and second layers are part of a battery. The system furtherincludes a deposition station that deposits a photovoltaic cell on thebattery. The system further includes a station that attaches anintegrated circuit to the substrate, and a wiring station that formsconductive paths between the integrated circuit, the battery and thephotovoltaic cell. The system further includes a motion device thatmoves the substrate. The first and second layers are deposited on thesubstrate while the substrate moves in a continuous motion. In someembodiments, the substrate is a flexible material supplied from a roll,and the first and second layers are deposited on the substrate while thesubstrate moves in a continuous motion. The first and second layers forma cathode layer of a battery including the cathode layer, an anodelayer, and an electrolyte layer located between and electricallyisolating the anode layer from the cathode layer. The anode or thecathode or both include an intercalation material. A deposition stationdeposits an electrical circuit on the battery. In other embodiments, thesubstrate is a rigid material supplied from a cassette, and the firstand second layers are deposited on the substrate while the substratemoves in a continuous motion. The may be a polymer material having amelting point below about 700 degrees Celsius. Energizing of the secondlayer includes supplying ions of at least 5 eV.

[0338] A system for making a thin-film device includes asubstrate-supply station that supplies a substrate having a majorsurface area. The substrate has a first layer on a first surface area ofthe substrate's major surface area. Also included is a device fordepositing a second layer onto the first layer, wherein the devicesupplies energy to the second layer to aid in layer formation withoutsubstantially heating the substrate.

[0339] A system for making a thin-film device includes asubstrate-supply station that supplies a substrate having a majorsurface area, and a plurality of deposition stations that deposit layersonto the substrate. The deposition station supplies energy to the layerto aid in layer formation without substantially heating the substrate.The substrate-supply station supplies a continuous plastic sheet or acontinuous set of wafers. The plurality of deposition stations depositsa thin film battery or a capacitor. The plurality of deposition stationscan deposit a thin film battery and a device powered by the thin filmbattery and a device may be deposited onto the thin film battery. Theplurality of deposition stations may be used to deposit a thin filmbattery and a set of traces for electrically connecting a device to thethin film battery. A placement device may also be provided for placingcomponents onto the traces.

[0340] It is understood that the above description is intended to beillustrative, and not restrictive. Many other embodiments will beapparent to those of skill in the art upon reviewing the abovedescription. The scope of the invention should, therefore, be determinedwith reference to the appended claims, along with the full scope ofequivalents to which such claims are entitled.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of making a thin-film device, the methodcomprising: providing a substrate having a major surface area, thesubstrate having a first layer on a first surface area of thesubstrate's major surface area; depositing a second layer onto the firstlayer, wherein the first and second layers form part of a battery; anddepositing one or more other layers on the battery to form aphotovoltaic cell.
 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein thedepositing of the second layer further includes supplying an amount ofion-assist energy to the second layer to aid in crystalline layerformation while controlling a stoichiometry of the crystalline layerwithout substantially heating the substrate, and wherein the battery isa thin-film lithium battery.
 3. The method according to claim 1, themethod further comprising: attaching an integrated circuit to thesubstrate; and operatively coupling the integrated circuit to charge thebattery using current from the photovoltaic cell.
 4. The methodaccording to claim 1, wherein at least some of the layers are depositedon the substrate while the substrate moves in a continuous motion. 5.The method according to claim 1, wherein the substrate is a flexiblematerial supplied from a roll, and at least some of the layers aredeposited on the substrate while the substrate moves in a continuousmotion.
 6. The method according to claim 1, wherein either the first orthe second layer forms a cathode layer of the battery, wherein thebattery includes the cathode layer, an anode layer, and an electrolytelayer located between and electrically isolating the anode layer fromthe cathode layer, wherein the anode or the cathode or both include anintercalation material.
 7. The method according to claim 1, furthercomprising depositing an electrical circuit on the battery.
 8. Themethod according to claim 1, wherein the substrate is a rigid materialsupplied from a cassette, and at least some of the layers are depositedon the substrate while the substrate moves in a continuous motion. 9.The method according to claim 1, wherein the substrate is a polymermaterial having a melting point below about 700 degrees Celsius.
 10. Themethod according to claim 1, wherein the depositing of the second layerincludes supplying ion-assist energy to the second layer using ions ofat least 5 eV.
 11. The method of claim 2, wherein the supplying ofion-assist energy includes supplying ions having an energy in the rangeof about 5 eV to about 50 eV.
 12. The method of claim 2, wherein thesupplying of ion-assist energy includes supplying ions having an energyin the range of about 5 eV to about 30 eV.
 13. The method of claim 2,wherein the supplying of ion-assist energy includes supplying ionshaving an energy in the range of about 5 eV to about 20 eV.
 14. Themethod of claim 2, wherein the supplying of ion-assist energy includessupplying ions having an energy in the range of about 10 eV to about 50eV.
 15. The method of claim 2, wherein the supplying of ion-assistenergy includes supplying ions having an energy in the range of about 10eV to about 20 eV.
 16. The method of claim 2, wherein the supplying ofion-assist energy includes supplying ions having an energy in the rangeof about 20 eV to about 50 eV.
 17. The method of claim 2, wherein thesupplying of ion-assist energy includes supplying ions having an energyin the range of about 20 eV to about 30 eV.
 18. The method of claim 1,wherein the supplying of ion-assist energy includes supplying ionshaving an energy of about 20 eV.
 19. The method according to claim 1,wherein the depositing of the second layer further includes supplying anamount of ion-assist energy to the second layer to aid in crystallineformation of a layer that includes lithium while controlling astoichiometry of the crystalline second layer.
 20. The method accordingto claim 1, wherein the depositing of the second layer further includessupplying an amount of ion-assist energy to the second layer to aid incrystalline layer formation while controlling a stoichiometry of thecrystalline second layer without substantially heating the substrate,and wherein the battery formed is a thin-film battery.
 21. The methodaccording to claim 2, wherein the second layer is a LiCoO₂ intercalationmaterial, and the supplying of ion-assist energy includes supplyingionized oxygen that combines with LiCo to form the LiCoO₂ intercalationmaterial.
 22. The method according to claim 2, wherein the providing ofthe substrate comprises: supplying a substrate base; and depositing thefirst layer onto the substrate base to form the substrate, whereindepositing of the first layer includes supplying ion-assist energy tothe first layer to aid in crystalline layer formation while controllinga stoichiometry of the crystalline first layer without substantiallyheating the substrate base.
 23. The method according to claim 2, whereinthe providing of the substrate includes supplying a flexible materialsupplied from a roll, and the depositing of the second layer on thesubstrate is performed while the substrate moves in a continuous motion,wherein the second layer forms an electrolyte layer of a battery,wherein the battery includes a cathode layer, an anode layer, and theelectrolyte layer located between and electrically isolating the anodelayer from the cathode layer, wherein the anode or the cathode or bothinclude an intercalation material.
 24. The method of claim 2, whereinthe supplying of energy to the first layer includes supplying energyfrom a high-intensity photo source.
 25. The method of claim 2, whereinthe supplying of energy to the first layer includes supplying energyfrom a high-temperature, short-duration heat source.
 26. The method ofclaim 2, wherein the supplying of energy to the first layer includessupplying energy from a short-duration plasma source.
 27. The method ofclaim 2, wherein the supplying of energy to the first layer includessupplying energized particles from a second source simultaneously withsupplying electrolyte material from a first source.
 28. The method ofclaim 2, wherein the supplying of energy to the first layer includessupplying laser energy to the surface.
 29. The method of claim 1,wherein the depositing of the second layer includes depositing adatomsto form the second layer as a film.
 30. A method of making a thin-filmdevice, the method comprising: supplying a substrate having a majorsurface area; and depositing a plurality of layers onto the substrateincluding supplying energy while depositing a first layer to aid incrystalline layer formation while controlling a stoichiometry of thecrystalline first layer without substantially heating the substrate; andsupplying energy to a second layer having a different composition to aidin crystalline layer formation while controlling a stoichiometry of thecrystalline second layer without substantially heating the substrate.31. The method of claim 30, wherein the first layer and the second layerform at least part of a battery, and wherein the method further includesdepositing one or more other layers on the battery in order to form aphotovoltaic cell.
 32. The method of claim 30, wherein the supplying ofenergy to the first layer includes supplying energy from ahigh-intensity photo source.
 33. The method of claim 30, wherein thesupplying of energy to the first layer includes supplying energy from ahigh-temperature, short-duration heat source.
 34. The method of claim30, wherein the supplying of energy to the first layer includessupplying energy from a short-duration plasma source.
 35. The method ofclaim 30, wherein the supplying of energy to the first layer includessupplying energized particles from a second source simultaneously withsupplying electrolyte material from a first source.
 36. The method ofclaim 30, wherein the supplying of energy to the first layer includessupplying laser energy to the surface.
 37. The method of claim 30,wherein the supplying of energy to the first layer includes supplyingion-assist energy with ions of a first energy, and the supplying ofenergy to the second layer includes supplying ion-assist energy withions of a second energy different than the first energy.
 38. The methodof claim 30, wherein supplying of the substrate includes supplying acontinuous set of wafers.
 39. The method of claim 30, wherein the firstand second layers form parts of a thin-film battery.
 40. The method ofclaim 30, wherein the first and second layers form parts of a capacitor.41. The method of claim 30, wherein the first and second layers,respectively, form parts of a thin-film battery and a device powered bythe thin-film battery, respectively.
 42. The method of claim 30, whereinthe first and second layers, respectively, form parts of a thin-filmbattery and a device powered by the thin-film battery, respectively,wherein the device is deposited onto the thin-film battery.
 43. Themethod of claim 30, further comprising depositing a set of traces forelectrically connecting a device to the thin-film battery.
 44. Themethod of claim 43, further comprising placing one or more componentsonto the traces.
 45. The method of claim 30, further comprisingdepositing an energy-conversion device on the thin-film device.
 46. Themethod of claim 30, wherein the substrate is a polymer material having amelting point below about 700 degrees Celsius.
 47. The method of claim30, wherein the energizing of the second layer includes supplying ionsof at least 5 eV.
 48. The method of claim 30, wherein the supplying ofion-assist energy includes supplying ions having an energy in the rangeof about 5 eV to about 50 eV.
 49. The method of claim 30, wherein thesupplying of ion-assist energy includes supplying ions having an energyin the range of about 5 eV to about 20 eV.
 50. The method of claim 30,wherein the supplying of ion-assist energy includes supplying ionshaving an energy in the range of about 10 eV to about 20 eV.
 51. Themethod of claim 30, wherein the supplying of ion-assist energy includessupplying ions having an energy in the range of about 20 eV to about 30eV.
 52. The method of claim 30, wherein the supplying of ion-assistenergy includes supplying ions having an energy of about 20 eV.
 53. Themethod of claim 48, wherein the substrate is a polymer material having amelting point below about 700 degrees Celsius, and wherein theenergizing of the second layer includes supplying ions of at least 5 eV.54. A method of making a thin-film device, the method comprising:providing a substrate base; depositing a first layer onto the substratebase, wherein the depositing of the first layer further includessupplying an amount of ion-assist energy to the first layer to aid incrystalline layer formation without substantially heating the substrate;depositing a second layer onto the first layer, wherein the first andsecond layers form part of a battery, wherein the depositing of thesecond layer further includes supplying an amount of ion-assist energyto the second-layer to aid in crystalline layer formation withoutsubstantially heating the substrate, and wherein the battery is athin-film lithium battery; and depositing one or more other layers onthe battery to form a photovoltaic cell, attaching an integrated circuitto the substrate; and operatively coupling the integrated circuit tocharge the battery using current from the photovoltaic cell.
 55. Themethod of claim 54, wherein the supplying of ion-assist energy includessupplying ions having an energy in the range of about 5 eV to about 50eV.
 56. The method of claim 54, wherein the substrate is a flexiblematerial supplied from a roll, and at least some of the layers aredeposited on the substrate while the substrate moves in a continuousmotion.
 57. The method of claim 54, wherein the substrate includes apolymer material having a melting point below about 700 degrees Celsius.